Salem Possessed By Paul Boyer And Stephen Nissenbaum

The Salem Witch trials were more than just accusations and women being sentenced to death. Politics, social status, and way of living back then all played essential roles in the trials which are discussed throughout the book â€Å"Salem Possessed† by Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum. The authors touch upon how social status of church members, farmers and community folk impacted who was accused of witchcraft and who was sentenced to death. While times have changed and the laws regarding imprisonment are very different, it is essential to remember that while the techniques and methods used during the witch trials were common back then and just their way of life. Salem Village was facing a wide variety of governmental and economical problems,†¦show more content†¦The authors discredit the claim that the witch trials were merely an excuse to eliminate the poor. In fact, the witch accusations, while they did begin with less wealthy members of the community, made their way to the top of the social ladder effecting members of the church and government. The majority of accusations were of women and girls, but once a female member of a family was accused it was common for other members of that family to be accused too regardless of their sex. Looking at the patters of the accusations, it becomes clear to the reader that all social classes were involved. From the early stages of accusations, the â€Å"fist three women accused could be seen as â€Å"deviants† or â€Å"outcasts† in their community† (31) which later spread to ministers, people of all ages, and both genders. Ministers however took a different approach to the accusations. Instead of being afraid of being put on trial, they viewed their accusation as a sign from God to help heal others. â€Å"By encouraging and even exploiting the usual behavior of the young people in their communities, both ministers had managed to turn a potentially damaging situation to their own benef it† (29). Although exploiting many people. the ministers were the only group who tried to see a light in the witch trials situation. Many members of the community lived in fear of beingShow MoreRelatedAmerican History to 18871148 Words   |  5 PagesPaul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaums Salem Possessed explores the pre-existing social and economic divisions within the Salem Village community, as an entry point to understand the accusations of witchcraft in 1692. According to Boyer and Nissenbaum, the village split into two factions: one interested in gaining more autonomy for Salem Village and led by the Putnam family, and the other, interested in the mercantile and political life of Salem Town and led by the Porter family. Boyer and NissenbaumsRead More Salem Witchcraft Essay2617 Words   |  11 PagesSalem Witchcraft Witchcraft accusations and trials in 1692 rocked the colony of Salem Massachusetts. There are some different views that are offered concerning why neighbors decided to condemn the people around them as witches and why they did what they did to one another. Carol Karlsen in her book The Devil in the Shape of a Woman and Bernard Rosenthal in Salem Story give several factors, ranging from woman hunting to shear malice, that help explain why the Salem trials took place andRead More Salem Possessed: The Social Origins of Witchcraft Essay465 Words   |  2 Pages Salem Possessed: The Social Origins of Witchcraft, Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press copyright 1974. The purpose of this book was to examine the history and social life of Salem Village to try to figure out what was the cause of the events that occurred there. I believe that the authors achieved their objective at least they did to me. Boyer and Nissenbaums explanation for the outbreak of witchcraft accusations in Salem hinges on an understanding of theRead More Comparing Salem Possessed by Paul Boyer, The Story of the Salem Witch Trials by Bryan Le Beau, and Devil in the Shape of a Woman by Carol Karlsen1819 Words   |  8 PagesComparing Salem Possessed by Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, The Story of the Salem Witch Trials by Bryan Le Beau, and The Devil in the Shape of a Woman by Carol Karlsen The Salem Witch Trials of 1692 spread just about as fast as the Black Plague. This epidemic caused chaos among neighbors in a community. The chronology of events describes an awful time for colonists from June 10th to September 22nd of that year. The books Salem Possessed by Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, The StoryRead MoreThe Trials Of The Salem Witch Trials1455 Words   |  6 Pagesthat the majority of humans are skeptical, if not reluctant to understand or accept that which unknown or different from what they previously considered being true, right, or normal. Such was the case in 1692 when over a hundred people from the Salem Town, Salem Village, and surrounding areas of Massachusetts were accused of witchcraft, leading to numerous arrests and even executions. The events that transpired in the small New England colony have intrigued, seduced, and baffled historians since theirRead MoreEssay about Witchcraft in Salem1406 Words   |  6 PagesWitchcraft in Salem In the past, the word Salem has always been somewhat synonymous with the infamous witch trials. Thanks to works such as Arthur Miller’s â€Å"The Crucible†, many people find it hard not to envision a community torn apart by chaos, even though Miller’s play was not so much about the witch trials but instead a commentary on the rampant McCarthyism going on at the time he wrote it. Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, however, see a very different picture when the Salem witch trialsRead MoreSalem Witch Trials And The Witch Trial Essay2225 Words   |  9 Pages1692 to 1693, twenty people were executed after being accused of witchcraft in Salem Village, Massachusetts, many more died in jail, and around 200 people total were accused of witchcraft during the Salem Witch Trials. Records from the event indicate that the Salem Witch Trials started when a group of young girls began acting strange, claiming they had been possessed by the Devil and bewitched by local villag ers. The Salem Witch Trials is a much debated event; historians argue over the motivation andRead MoreThe Crucible Narrative2336 Words   |  10 Pages | | |4/3/2012 | In 1692, in Salem Massachusetts a small group of girls joined together to go in the woods at night to meet a slave woman name Tituba. Tituba is a slave of Reverend Parris. During their meeting all the girls are dancing amongst a fire pit that will be used for collectingRead MoreCarlo Ginzburgs Salem Possessed : The Social Origins Of Witchcraft?2004 Words   |  9 Pagesdetail on the many trials associated with the benandanti during this time. In Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum’s work, Salem Possessed: The Social Origins of Witchcraft, the two authors give an in-depth look into the witch trials that plagued Salem Massachusetts in 1962. The authors analyze the people of the town and the deep-rooted disagreements that these people shared. Boyer and Nissenbaum try to discover why Salem had so many witch craft accusations as well as why it happened when it did. InRead MoreThe Salem Witch Trials : A Day By Day Chronicle Of A Community Under Siege Essay1671 Words   |  7 PagesT he book I have chosen to write about is â€Å"The Salem Witch Trials: A Day by Day Chronicle of a Community Under Siege† written by Marilynne K. Roach and published in 2002. Marilynne K. Roach is the president of the Historical Society of Watertown and a member of the Watertown Historical Commission board, she also is an active board member and a curator of the Salem Witch Museum. She has multiple books that have been published about the Salem and the trials that occurred in the late 17th and early 18th

Arab, Muslim And Middle East - 1875 Words

To even begin to delve into our topic, we must first define the following terms: Arab, Muslim and Middle East. Millions of the people that fall into these categories live in the United States, yet we hardly take the time to learn to differentiate between them thanks to the negative connotations that are associated with each of these terms (Chin, 2009). To be considered Arab, you or your ancestors live or lived in the Arab world and speak Arabic. The â€Å"Arab world† is made up of 22 states and territories whom are part of the Arab League. However many people in these states do not consider themselves Arab, thus the Arabic language is the unifying factor among the Arabic people. A lot of the individuals who speak Arabic today are very diverse. There is a myriad of dialects of Arabic and over 150 million people speak it. Twenty-five countries consider Arabic an official language (even if few are fluent in it). They vary from African to West Asian countries, however Arabs also live as minorities in many other nations. For example, the United States (Banks, 2009). The history of the Arabic language goes back thousands of years, thus many branches of the language exist among many people, but its prevalence became apparent following the emergence of Islam. The Quran was originally written in Arabic, thus through Islamic state building and expansion, its use was extended. Islamic empires like the Umayyad Caliphate, the Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Empire and the Mughal Empire were vastShow MoreRelatedThe United States, Arab, Muslim, And Middle East1503 Words   |  7 Pagesnon-white â€Å"Other†. As seen through the downward mobility of Arab, Muslim, and Middle-Eastern Americans- who had originally been granted access to the privileges of whiteness- after being identified collectively as a threat to the expansion and success of the US empire, Arab, Muslim, and Middle-Eastern Americans began to be racialized as part of the non-white â€Å"Other† even before 9/11. Media representations of Arab, Muslim, and Middle Eastern communities outside the borders of the United States servedRead MoreIslam s Impact On The Muslim Arab World And The Middle East2637 Words   |  11 PagesResearch Center†, each day almost 1.6 billion Muslims face in the direction of Mecca - a city in Saudi Arabia - to perform their prayers; that’s over 23% of the world’s population. They offer these prayers not once, but five times daily. Furthermore, an excess of two million Muslims journeying each year to this sanctified city in lieu of their pilgrimage is reported (Lynch, 2014); an obligation to be fulfilled at least once in a lifetime. Moreover, Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49Read MoreConnection of Terrorism and the Middle East Essay702 Words   |  3 Pagespeople safely went to their designated flight. As you were walking around the airport, you notice a Middle-aged man carrying a large suitcase. The man seems nervous and is looking around as if he is lost. However, as you approach him, your intent ion of helping the man vanishes when you notice that the man is wearing a type of scarf around his head and a long white garment that distinguishes him as a Muslim. Instantly, flashes of the 9/11 attacks come rushing in your mind as you confronted the man aboutRead MoreSocial, Cultural And Political Features Of The Middle East1140 Words   |  5 Pagesand Political Features of the Middle East The term Middle East is used to refer to the region between Afghanistan and the Atlantic Ocean on the east and west respectively. The area generally referred to as the Middle East is made of nineteen countries with a population of 3% of the world’s number (Murphy and Hussein). Although there is a heterogeneous group of people living in these countries there are some characteristics of the region that are unique to the Middle East. One of the most common featureRead MoreIslamic Fundamentalism is based on Islamic ideology. It is also seen as a group of religious800 Words   |  4 Pagesalso seen as a group of religious ideologies trying to return to the fundamentals of Islam. Muslim Brotherhood started in Egypt in the year of 1928. Muslim Brotherhood is an anti-colonial, transnational Sunni Islamist movement, it is attempting to integrate Islam into politics and government. Members of the brotherhood believe the Quran and Sunnah should be the basis of the government (Johnson, 2014). Muslim Brotherhood is not only found in Egypt, it spreads over 60 countries to try to gain more peopleRead More Arabs in the Media: Victim or Villain? Essay1339 Words   |  6 PagesArabs in the Media: Victim or Villain?   Ã‚  Ã‚   For decades, the media portrayal of the Arab culture and Islam has contributed to a skewed public opinion in America. Looking closely at the news coverage concerning the Middle East and the United States, there is an inherent media bias against Arabs and Muslims as foreign threats to domestic security. Stephen Franklin argues that Islamic nations are often portrayed in news reports as uniformly intolerant and anti-democratic (Franklin 17). UnfortunatelyRead MoreThe Middle East821 Words   |  4 Pagesorientalist idea of the Middle East. It represented the faulty equation of Islam= Muslim= Arab= terrorist or religious fanatics. From the image of the magazine cover, a man dressed in the Middle-East attire can be seen standing on what looks like a balcony with the landscape of the Middle-East in the background. The image in the background presented the Middle East as underdeveloped in an effective manner. The image in the foreground by the top right corner signified the Middle East as an oil-hoardingRead MoreDoes Arab Feminism Exist? The New World?1585 Words   |  7 Pages Does Arab feminism exist in the new world? For centuries women have been fighting the battle for equal rights and creating an identity for themselves. Feminism is a broad topic to discuss in just one paper considering the vast amount of information that can be spoken about the topic. The women in the new world for some countries have it better off than others, such as the United States. The U.S. was able to grant the equal rights amendment to women back in 1972. What shocks the mindsRead MoreThe World Of The Middle East785 Words   |  4 PagesFundamental ideas to bring them closer Palestinian Arabs, and the Nazi political leaders were both adamantly against international Jewry. The Mufti as early as 1933 enthusiastically expressed his support of the Nazi party’s anti-Jewish policies, and requested that Germany no longer send its Jews to Palestine. the Mufti is the most recognized Arab collaborator with Nazi Germany, however other influential Arab and Muslim political leaders held similar fundamental beliefs to those of the Nazis, oneRead MoreThe Nazi s And The Middle East797 Words   |  4 Pageshave been groups that have forever shaped the world politically, socially, and economically. The Nazi regime left a tremendous impact on the world; especially the Middle East. These impacts are still felt today. Indeed, the Nazi party had a tremendous impact on Arab nationalism, Islamism, and the actions that were taken by the Palestinian Arab Movement, that were the genesis of the radicalization of today’s Islamic state. The Nazis were able to influence these aspects through the connection of their

Counter-Intuitive Marketing Free Essays

Chapter 10 gives the reader a view if direct marketing is really effective on selling products to consumer at large. Most of selling companies consider direct marketing as a â€Å"personalized† marketing; however, there is more to the tedious door-to-door selling. Factors are attributed to how the consumers buy-in to the concept that goes to the product, may it be the message it conveys or the packaging itself. We will write a custom essay sample on Counter-Intuitive Marketing or any similar topic only for you Order Now Before going to the assessment of current direct marketing strategies and research designs that can be used to target the right customers, the current problems of direct marketing were enlisted. One of the problems experienced was the decline in the response rates among the consumers. This situation may lead to the next problem which is saturation to direct marketing mails. Since many companies are into direct selling, there may also be a thin delineation among these companies. This leads to the problem of having not enough innovation in the part of the marketers. With these problems at hand, the author routed us to the idea if the list that marketers have at hand is really the list that would patronize their products. In marketing, it is important to understand the market so you would know if your product will fit. It is easy to secure a list, but the book tells us that there is more to having that list. When marketing a certain product, it is important to understand the behavior and attitudes of the consumers. The material recommends that it pays the company who builds their own list and understands the needs of those consumers on that list. In this way, from a bigger perspective of the population, the company can identify the segment of the population that is expected to buy. However, the concept of direct marketing is not only confined to the relationship of the company to its consumers. Direct marketing can also happen to business-to-business. One computer company can sell its services to another company who would need its products. But just like how one company should understand its consumers, when dealing with companies as well, it would need to know what it values, what it finds important or what risks it will take. Towards the end of the chapter, it discusses methods on how one company can find effective direct marketing strategies. The process of finding the appropriate strategy is continually evolving. It is not serving the same content yet in different packaging. Changing strategy mix from time to time will help the marketer fine tune his design to effectively sell the products. It also pays in direct marketing to make itself visible, not only once to the customer. Once a direct mail is sent to the consumer twice, it will yield a higher possibility of response from the side of the consumer. Direct marketing in an essence is an experiment that molds itself to perfection. One cannot really have a perfect model to follow, but one thing sure about making it effective is to always acknowledge the side of your product’s market. Indeed, it is a powerful tool once a company can get it right, but also a way of wasting resource if done otherwise. The next chapter leads the readers to a more specific perspective of marketing – building the concept for the product that will be sold to the customers. Within a product, marketers can actually think of numerous possibility or mixes on how to market it effectively. Some companies would go on for discounts, freebies and favors. However, not all these would actually work. It shows that it will be all competition driven, thus, sacrificing the actual sales that the product would have. Most of companies employ the idea of the traditional concept testing. In doing this design, it is recommended that companies should have larger sample sizes and should disclose the full description of the product. This is to ensure that they will have at least the credible response of the consumers about their selling proposition. However, this strategy is engulfed with problems. It fails to acknowledge that consumers may not really mean what they are saying. The customer’s promise of saying that he will buy the product may not necessarily mean that they will do the thing of buying it. Models may say that consumers will most likely buy it if there is a high self reported probability of purchase. Then again, this is still a gamble. As mentioned on the previous chapter, there is more to understanding the target market. Affective and cognitive components affect the consumer’s decision to buy the product. Affective would mean their intangible impressions or their feelings, and the latter focuses on their intellectual impressions on how the product could be of help to them. These two components have to be reconciled in order to have a clearer picture on the consumer’s willingness to buy the product. However, as mentioned, there are still numerous options under one concept. The two components cannot give the marketers a concrete answer on what to really market on the larger scale of consumers. A methodology is herein presented to address this challenge. As proposed by Paul Green of the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania, the multiple trade-off analysis can address the problem on how to consolidate the factors and all other small concept under the big product design. One can also evaluate each factor independently; however the multiple trade-off analysis can also show the interaction effects between factors. Not all factors is a stand-alone, the researcher must acknowledge that one factor can actually rely on another. The end each analysis is always to come up with the best marketing decision. The chapter warns marketers that the most appealing concept may be the most expensive one. As the company proceeds with its operations, not taking into consideration the financial part can be detrimental. Thus, deciding on the best concept will speak about optimality – not only considering the dimension but always keeping in mind profitability. Evaluation thousands of options is always worth doing and balancing it with the returns would lead to a marketing success. Possible Questions to the CEO During the Interview 1. What strategy does your company employing when you market directly your products? 2. What were the success and failures of this strategy? 3. How did you understand your market base in order to cope up with the failures of the existing strategy? 4. What method did you use to know what effective marketing concept that would let your consumers avail of your product or service? 5. Do you think you method has been successful in capturing your target market? Why? BIBLIOGRAPHY Clancy, Peter C. Krieg Kevin J.. Counter-Intuitive Marketing. New York City: Free Press, 2000. How to cite Counter-Intuitive Marketing, Essays

Rock Solid free essay sample

It is a mild, March afternoon as I sat in my last class of the day. My English teacher quieted us down, preparing us for an announcement. â€Å"Yesterday, Patrick, a member of our school, was killed in a skiing accident,† she said. My stomach churned as if it had just been pulverized by an enemies’ fist, and even the simplest of words escaped my suddenly dry mouth. I walked out the room feeling nothingness. â€Å"You don’t work hard for praise and adoration; you work hard because that’s who you are.† These words were spoken by Patrick weeks before his passing to his troubled sister of whom he was close to. Patrick was not only a friend to me, but also a teammate. In remembrance of him, our soccer team installed a boulder inside our stadium bearing his words. Because of the boulder, our season motto for the year: â€Å"Rock Solid. We will write a custom essay sample on Rock Solid or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page † To be â€Å"Rock Solid†, you have to work hard at everything. You have to play for the man next you. You have to fall down eight times and get up nine. And that’s exactly what Patrick did. All my life, I have been a born center-midfielder. I receive passes from the defense and send them to the forwards. I am the messenger. The communicator. The playmaker. Bearing the red captains band on my left arm, I know it is my job to achieve wins. The game is tied at one, and the air is so still, each leaf changes colors as autumn takes its turn. I pass left. I pass right. I do a move around a defender that took me weeks to perfect. I squeeze the ball between another two defenders up to my forward, not believing in my own ability to make the pass. With a quick turn and hit, my forward scores the game-winning goal, and the thundering crowd reacts. I sprint over and congratulate my forward. As the fans talk about the miraculous goal, no one knows what I did to set him up for the score. But I know. The assist: the most underrated play in soccer. And in life. Everyone remembers who scored the goal, the touchdown, or the basket, but no one ever remembers the assist. But without my hard work, my determination, my patience, my control, and my pass, we don’t win. But that is why I love what I do. â€Å"I don’t work hard for praise and adoration; I work hard because that’s who I am.† Soccer is a simple game. The objective is to get the ball in the opposing team’s goal. But how I get it there is beautiful. My goal in life is to be successful and make something of myself. How I achieve that goal is what defines me. So as I walk on to the field before every game, I touch the rock, say hello to Patrick, and know he is gritting his teeth for our win.

The importance of Sustainable Purchasing and Supply for Organizations in Gaining Competitive Advantage

Marketing a Business

Marketing a Business Abstract Marketing a business is a challenging endeavor. This paper provides a detailed analysis of the Urban Outfitters case study. Difficulties with creating a trendy counterculture image are discussed. Why big box stores cannot sell merchandize identical to Urban Outfitters is explained. The paper explains the value of exclusivity and the relationship between shopping and entertainment.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Marketing a Business specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Marketing a business is a challenging endeavor. In the atmosphere of fierce competition, uniqueness and exclusivity often become the main sources of competitive advantage. The case of Urban Outfitters suggests that uniqueness and differentiation can help businesses to overcome marketing difficulties and achieve sustained marketing success. Big box stores can never sell merchandize identical to Urban Outfitters: store chains like Wal-Mart or Sears always seek chain supply efficiency, which predetermines their commercial success. As a result, they have to sacrifice exclusiveness for the sake of stable profits and can never satisfy the symbolic needs of customers for ego-identification and self-enhancement. Why Wal-Mart and Sears cannot create an effective trendy counterculture image is not difficult to explain. First, standardization is an essential ingredient of Wal-Mart’s marketing strategies. Standard in their assortment and store design, Wal-Mart, Sears, and similar companies always seek to provide their customers with cheap but quality products. However, counterculture image can never be cheap, nor is it compatible with the key values and visions of big supply chains. Second, supply chain efficiency and low profit margins through high sales volumes are the distinctive features of large supply chains’ operations. The bulk of goods offered by Wal-Mart and Sears will never make customers unique. Any attempt to create a counterculture will reduce their supply chain efficiency and doom most of their business endeavors to failure. Neither Wal-Mart nor Sears can sacrifice their market position for the sake of entering a small counterculture niche. Wal-Mart and Sears win because they meet standard demands of common consumers, who do not seek differentiation but merely want to save their costs. Big box stores can never sell merchandize identical to Urban Outfitters, because the latter relies on low sales volumes, emphasizes exclusivity and differentiation, and provides its staff with freedom of creativity and assortment choice.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Differentiation and large sales volumes are incompatible; again, Wal-Mart cannot sacrifice supply chain efficiency for the sake of acquiring an image of a countercultural provider of exclusive goods. Wal-Mart simply doe s not have enough financial or staff opportunities to ensure that its goods are always new and unique. Take a look at Urban Outfitters: â€Å"every Monday, Urban executives analyze and react to sales for the last week [†¦] the system is flexible enough to change direction on a weekly basis† (Brown, 2004). Every Monday, Urban executives reconsider their assortments and rotate their merchandize, to meet the needs of unique customers (Brown, 2004). Big box stores simply lack flexibility to make exclusivity their defining feature. Moreover, exclusivity does not fit in big box stores’ trade philosophy. â€Å"Exclusive big box stores† is an oxymoron rather than a reality. Wal-Mart and Urban Outfitters are at the two opposite ends of one trade continuum, and they will never become a single entity. Why exclusivity is valuable? Several answers are possible. At once, exclusivity is associated with differentiation, and many customers want to be different from the gray mass of people. At a deeper level, exclusivity reinforces the sense of prestige in the mind of a customer (Groth McDaniel, 1993). It is through exclusivity that brands like Urban Outfitters can meet the symbolic needs of customers, who seek self-enhancement and ego-identification (Park, Jarowski MacInnis, 1986). This is probably why Urban Outfitters target college students, who are still at the very beginning of their way to self-identification. The significance of the relationship between consumption and symbolic needs cannot be overstated: brands like Urban Outfitters \ let their consumers associate themselves with the desired self-image (Park et al, 1986). These symbolic meanings have little to do with a particular product class but are tied to the entire brand, creating a generic image of prestige and wellbeing (Park et al, 1986). Whether or not shopping is entertainment depends upon many factors. However, it is at least incorrect to say that in their shopping experiences all customers inevitably seek entertainment. In reality, different consumers pursue different shopping goals. In brief, consumers can be either product-oriented or experiential (Ibrahim Wee, 2002). The former are motivated by the need to purchase products (Ibrahim Wee, 2002). The latter are guided by recreational and hedonic motives and experience a sense of pleasure inherent in the act of purchase (Ibrahim Wee, 2002). The shopping-as-entertainment-philosophy may not be appropriate for all types of buyers but can become extremely valuable in developing separate shopper segments.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Marketing a Business specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Marketing is not about providing customers with entertainment opportunities; rather, successful marketing requires knowledge of the motives drawing consumers to the store. Marketing campaigns are successful only when they meet the needs of consumer audienc es. Entertainment can become a useful element of marketing a business, but only in situations when the new or existing brand targets hedonic customers and helps them meet their symbolic needs. Conclusion Marketing is successful to the extent that meets the needs of customers. Big box stores like Wal-Mart and Sears can never sell merchandize identical to Urban Outfitters, since they lack capacity to pursue uniqueness. Wal-Mart customers merely want to save their costs, and standardization is a direct prerequisite of supply chain efficiency in big box stores. Exclusivity is valuable for customers who seek prestige and ego-identification. As a result, entertainment can become a useful element of marketing a business, but only in situations when the new or existing brand targets hedonic customers and helps them to meet their symbolic needs. References Brown, H. (2004, November 11). Urban cowboy. Forbes. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/forbes/2004/1101/154.html. Groth, J.C. McDani el, S.W. (1993). The exclusive value principle: The basis for prestige rating. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 10(1), 10-16. Ibrahim, M.F. Wee, N.C. (2002). The importance of entertainment in the shopping centre experience: Evidence from Singapore. Journal of Real Estate Portfolio Management, 8(3), 239-254. Park, C.W., Jaworski, B.J. MacInnis, D.J. (1986). Strategic brand concept-image management. Journal of Marketing, vol.50, 135-145.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More

Affirmative Action Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Affirmative Action - Essay Example The United States Department of Labor has implemented the affirmative action in a number of ways that include but are not limited to targeted recruitment, employee support programs, outreach campaigns, and management development. The American society has conventionally suffered a lot from racism and discrimination. There is a strong need to make such public organizations as the health care organizations, universities and the police increasingly representative of the needs of the respective populations that they cater for. Affirmative action has conventionally been subjected to a lot of debate and controversy. Policies implemented in the name of affirmative action including the gender quotas and the racial quotas for admission in the colleges in the USA have been identified as measures to promote reverse discrimination. Accordingly, the majority in the American constitution has rendered the implementation of these actions as unconstitutional. This paper supports the affirmative action because it is a way of increasing diversity in the American society at all levels, eradication of disparity in the earnings of people based on gender, and enhancement of the literacy rate of minorities in the USA. There is dire need of the affirmative action in the American society for the creation of diversity. ... John Stuart Mill asserted that the University intends to create diversity by providing people with frequent opportunities of interaction with people who differ from them. Diversity of students in terms of race, ethnicity, religion and culture is conducive for the development of a healthy educational environment in the schools and universities as it allows students to remove their differences and enhance their understanding of one another’s culture. This is particularly beneficial for the studies of sociology and psychology as students get to look at things from a wider perspective. Patricia Gurin who is the professor of psychology at the University of Miuchigan says that students in a diverse educational setting gain better learning and their tendency to play an active part in the democratic and pluralistic society after the end of their studies is enhanced. Therefore, affirmative action is the need of universities in America. Critics see diversity as a cause of dysfunctional conflicts among the organizational personnel. However, this is a very pessimistic and extremely biased assessment of the impacts of diversity upon the organizational culture. Although there is some possibility of arise of dysfunctional conflicts among the organizational personnel because of their cultural differences, yet this problem can be tackled with effective management and the conflict-resolution practices in place in the organization. Affirmative action is the need of the society because of the widespread lack of equality in the socioeconomic status of people in the USA. There are a lot of places where some people earn more than others simply because the former belong to the majority while the

Reasons for the Growth of MNEs from Emerging Economies from a Essay

Reasons for the Growth of MNEs from Emerging Economies from a Theoretical Perspective - Essay Example The author of the essay "Growth of MNEs from emerging economies from a theoretical perspective" explains, MNEs are Multinational Enterprises which operate in many nations as part of their internationalizations strategy. Barlett, Ghoshal and Beamish (2008) provide a similar definition to MNEs, by stating MNEs are â€Å"organizations that have substantial direct investment in foreign countries and actively manage those operations and regard those operations as integral parts of the company both strategically and organizationally.† However, the same type of organization are also referred by other term as well like international firms, multinational companies, transnational or 'global', to supranational, etc in common day usage, in business circles and in various articles and books. This being the case, the term MNEs are used in particular contexts. That is, as pointed out earlier, the organizations that operate in many countries are not simply a MNC or MNE in just the legal sense . Instead, they are â€Å"an aggregate group or network of corporate and non-corporate entities, established under the domestic laws of different nations and thereby endowed with different nationalities†. In that context, the term enterprise or MNE appears to be the most suited for covering all the many and varied forms of corporate and operational interrelationships. (Zurawicki 1979). Thus, due to their extensive operations, they are being influenced by various factors from their origination to every day functioning. This is particularly visible when the MNEs are divided into MNEs from developed countries and MNEs from emerging or developing countries or economies. That is, it is a well known fact that economic advantages, military strength, technological capabilities, even geographical strength and other aspects differentiate and categorize countries of the world as developed, developing and poor countries. This categorization is also visible among the business circles, wit h the organizations categorized into MNEs from Developed countries (DMNEs for short) and MNEs from Emerging countries (EMNEs for short). According to Rugman (2009), â€Å"currently the world's 500 largest MNEs dominate world trade and investment, and in terms of FDI the world's largest firms account for 90 percent of the world total.†. As these MNEs operate in many countries by having subsidiaries, joint ventures, etc., they are making positive impacts all over the world. That is, many MNEs from emerging and least developed countries are also working as part of this large MNE system. â€Å"It is through the activities of this set of very large MNEs that less developed countries are being integrated into the world's economic system.† (Rugman 2009). But, at the same time, when the positions of these DMNEs and EMNEs are compared, it appears that EMNEs are positioned well below DMNEs. That is, although EMNEs from many countries including China, India, Brazil, etc, etc. hav e increased in numbers in the recent decades due to various accentuating factors, they constitute only minority among the largest firms of the world. â€Å"Although their numbers have increased, developing-country firms account for only between 5 and 8.4% of the largest public firms. Moreover, they tend to be present at the lower end of the ranking† (Cuervo-Cazurra and Genc 2008). Even then EMNEs are coming up with optimal strategies to strongly compete with the DMNEs, and in many cases are even overtaking the DMNEs. This paper focusing of these EMNEs will first discuss how certain historic, geographic, cultural and institutional factors acted and are still acting as the disadvantages for the EMNEs, and then will discuss how notwithstanding these disadvantages, the EMNEs are able to compete with established DMNEs through effective strategies. One of the main disadvantages which have been faced by

INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS AND GLOBALIZATION (MARKET EVALUATION AND Research Paper

INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS AND GLOBALIZATION (MARKET EVALUATION AND STRATEGIC PLANNING PROJECT) - Research Paper Example By providing an overview of the geographical markets, overall sales/market share, expectation for future sales growth, profitability potential, and seeking to analyze and understand the firm’s geographic growth strategy, the reader/researcher is able to determine a great deal with regards to what may take place within the future without ever having to suffer the risk and danger of blindly testing a highly costly product line in a market or with a given demographic of the consumer base that would ultimately reject it. Background Begun in 1959, Dubai Refreshments originally was located on Maktoum Street in central Dubai. In such a way, it comes as no surprise that the full power of the most potent geographic market for the firm’s offerings exists within the continents of Africa and Asia. Although the firm has experienced a great deal of growth domestically, it has yet to fully leverage a degree of potential international growth. In such a fashion, for the nation of the Un ited Arab Emirates, Dubai Refreshments exhibits nearly a 70% market share with regards to energy drinks. Similarly, due to the fact that population of Dubai and the surrounding region has grown exponentially within the past several decades, the firm is able to integrate its products with a broader and broader market segment than it would have before thought possible. As a direct result of this, profitability has increased alongside this population growth. Although Dubai Refreshments is considered a bonafide distributor of PepsiCo drinks, the firm in and of itself exhibits complete autonomy and is not a subsidiary of the global beverage giant. Such a level of autonomy means that Dubai Refreshments is able to integrate within the global market and seek to leverage a degree of success for itself without being under the constraints of any contractual obligations or limitations placed upon it by a third party or ultimate conglomerate of ownership. Market Analysis/Evaluation Although it i s ultimately the intention of Dubai Refreshments to engage in a broad marketing plan that will see each and every one of its sectors grow in overall sales, the purpose of this specific strategy is with regards to seeking to leverage a degree of growth within the market of Vietnam; seeking to promote the drink company in an emerging market as a means of breaking out from the formerly â€Å"domestic only† lable that the firm has crafted for itself. As will be discussed below in the analysis, the reasons for choosing Vietnam are multiple; however, the nation itself has not been chosen merely on one or two determinants. Rather, it has been chosen due to the fact that it is the belief of these authors that this particular nation represents the greatest overall possibility with regards to future growth and international development of the brand. Social Issues Although long overlooked as something of a backwater communist relic, the nation of Vietnam has experienced a rapid amount o f economic growth within the past several years. Due to the rapid level of economic growth, the human development Index and the gross domestic product of the nation of Vietnam has risen precipitously alongside this form of development. A further reason why the nation of Vietnam is been chosen with regards to the international expansion of Dubai

Importance of Sociological Theory

Importance of Sociological Theory Why is theory important in the area of sociology? A theory is a proposed relationship between two or more concepts. In sociology, theories are statements of reason why particular facts about the social world are related (Marcionis Geber, 2010, p14). The scope of the social issues in question may range from exact descriptions of a single process to examples or models for analysis and interpretation. Some theories attempt to tell us about the possible outcome of future events in the social world, while others function as broad perspective which guides further sociological analyses (Calhoun, 2002, p1). The importance of theory in the area of sociology cannot be overemphasized. Theories such as the social conflict theory, structural functionalism theory, positivism theory, field theory, rational choice theory, and so on, were developed to explain social phenomena. In sociology, a theory states the hypothesis of a set of entities or relevant system, and permits statements on the possible or envisaged outcomes on their future states. As captured in Little (2010), a theory may also specify probabilistic relations among entities, giving rise to statements about the distribution of possible future states of the system. Little (2010) also noted that a theory provides a set of â€Å"bridge† statement that permits the theorist to connect the consequences of the theory with predictions about observable state of affairs. Sociology is an examination of human beings in social contexts. It entails observing how people in specific communities interact, and surveying and conducting experiments to yield new data on which to build sociological knowledge. Interconnectivity or interdependence is the main characteristic of a society. Sociological theories are frameworks explaining how certain aspects or elements of society are interconnected to the larger processes or environment. Application of theories helps determine the interdependent aspects of the co-existence of individuals or groups. Theories in the area of sociology will help people understand how society works and how they can be a useful part in it. Furthermore, theories helps in decision making with regards to factors affecting a certain community as wrong decisions often result from inadequate knowledge of the structure and other peculiarities of the society. These wrong decisions may have a far-reaching impact on people’s lives. In addition, addressing societal problems such as alcoholism, high criminal rate, requires decision makers to have a fair knowledge of the problems and their root causes. Vassos, while contributing to the subject, stated that sociological theories provide insights on social issues, thereby enabling appropriate relevant authority to adequately and effectively tackle the problems. Sociologists focus on how a society is structured, how each and every individual works as part of the whole, how society has changed over the years and predictions of future changes. In essence, sociological theories help people understand society and knowledge of the world as it grows. In conclusion, Ritzer (2003) defined sociological theory as a set of interrelated ideas that allow for the systematization of knowledge of the social world. This knowledge, he noted, can then be used to explain the social world and make predictions about the future of the world. Discuss any sociology theory of your choice The Social Conflict Theory is one of the theories in sociology. The conflict theory was originated by Karl Marx in the mid – 1800’s. The theory states that human behaviour results in conflicts between competing groups. According to Karl Marx, the two competing social groups comprised of the ruling class on one hand and the subject class on the other have unequal access to power and resources (Anderson Taylor, 2009). The ruling class enjoys been the owner, having control over the forces of production thereby exploiting the subject class which results in a conflict of interest between both parties. Conflict theories generally focus attention on key areas of substantial social differences particularly with regards to class, gender and race. Conflict theory is mostly associated with Marxism, and may also be associated with other major perspectives including critical theory, feminist theory, post-modern theory and post structural theory (Adegbolagun, 2012). Macionis Geber (2011) however noted that other important sociologists like Harriet Martinean, Hane Addams and Dubois argue that this sociological approach does not adequately consider how social structures help society to function; rather it dwells on how inherent social differences can cause some people in the society to be dominant and others to be oppressed. The social conflict theory opines that different social classes of individuals and groups within society with varying amounts of material and non-material resources use their relative strength in power or wealth to exploit groups with lesser advantage. Two major means of this exploitation are through cohesion or force usually done by police, the army and economics. Perhaps this explains the reason why money is perceived as the substance of social disorder and oppression. It can also be deduced from their beliefs that the society is characterized by an on-going social struggle or competition between various groups. The social conflict theory believes social relationships are about power and exploitation; the rich exploiting the poor. Citing an example of this oppression is a renter for instance, living in a rented apartment for as long as fifty years and having no right or economic interest within the property. In sociology, conflict theory opines that the society functions so that everyone or group involved can make the best use of benefits which in the long run brings about social changes. Most times, the theory is used to explain conflict between social classes in ideas such as socialism and communism. Competition plays a vital role in understanding conflict theory. Accordingly, there are three primary assumptions of modern conflict theory (Vanithamohanakumar, 2011). The first is competition over scarce resources such as money and leisure which is characteristic of human relationship. Second is structural inequality which has to do with inequalities in power and reward. Thirdly, it is believed that rather than adapting to the situation, rapid and forceful turnaround or revolution is eminent as a result of the conflict between competing interests. According to McCafferty (2006), conflict theory emphasizes the social political or material inequality of a social group. It also contrast domi nant ideologies and make open differences in power. Conflict theory posits that social groups or classes compete with each other in order to obtain control of the scarce resources. A realistic social conflict theory is an understanding of the positive role of social conflict in serving the common good. It is actually expected to put change in perspective since all substantial social change involves social conflict. Understanding social conflict theory can assist groups to function in finding common grounds, developing alliances, defining core values, identifying and indeed eliminating differences in viewpoints where necessary, setting group boundaries, and strategizing to achieve the expected change. Harper postulated that in Social Conflict Theory, no one group should dominate all other groups particularly in a democratic society. He noted further that the power of all groups, especially of large institutions, is limited by the rule of law and by social impact, custom and social tradition. Within these confines of interest, various groups and institutions compete, negotiate and work out changes in socio-economic arrangements, generating social conflict in the process. Wright Mills opined that social structures are created through conflict between people with differing interests and resources. Individuals and resources in turn, are influential by these structures and by the unequal distribution of power and resources in the society (Knapp, 1994, pp228-246). REFERENCES Academic Room, Sociological Theoretical Perspectives, [online], (2013, [n.d]). Available from: http://www.academicroom.com/topics/sociologocal-theory-definition [Accessed 27 March 2014]. Adegbolagun, Adefolaju, Theories of Conflict, [online], (Scribd.com, 5 September 2012). Available from: http://www.scribd.com/doc/105006384/Theories-of-Conflict [Accessed 30 March 2014]. Anderson, M L. And Taylor, H.F., Sociology: The Essentials, (Rhomson Wadswoth, Belmot Ca, 2009). Berger, Joseph, Theory and Formalization: Some Reflections on Experience, Sociological Theory, Vol. 18 No. 3, pp482 – 489, (2000). Calhoun, Craig J., Classical Sociological Theory. (Wiley Blackwell, 2002) Gerber L.M, Macionis J.J, Sociology, 7th Canadian p15, (Pearson Toronto, Canada, 2011) p. 15. Harper, Nile, Journeys into Justice: Understanding Social Conflict Theory [online], [n.d.]. Available from: http://www.journeysintojustice.com/social-conflict-theory.htm, [Accessed 28 March 2014]. Knapp, P., One World – Many Worlds: Contemporary Sociological Theory, 2nd ed., ( It Apprercollins Colleges Div, 1994) pp 228 – 246. Little, Daniel,â€Å"Theory† in Sociology [online], (Understanding Society, 11 February 2010). Available from: http://understandingsociety.blogspot.com/2010/02/theory-in-sociology.html [Accessed 30 March 2014]. Liz, Sharon, Granehoolz, Boiuma–Holtrop, Explaining Critical Sociological Thinking from Teaching Sociology, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp 485 – 496, (2003) Macionis Gerber, John J. and Linda M., Sociology 7th Canadian ed., (Pearson Education Inc, Upper Saddle River NJ, 2010). McCafferty, Kevin C (2006) Conflict Theory [online], (How Contributor, ehow, 2006). Available from: http://www.ehow.com/facts_5518763_ conflict-theory. Obserschal Anthony, Theories of Social Conflict, from Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 4, pp291 – 315, (1978). Ritzer, George., Contemporary Sociological Theory and its Classical Roots: The Basics, [online], (McGraw-Hill Higher Education, University of Maryland, 2003). Available from: http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/007234962x/student_view0/chapter1/chapter_overview.html [Accessed 28 March 2014]. Stark, Rodney., Sociology, 10th ed., (Thomas Wadsworth, 2007). Skocpol, Theda., States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China, (Cambridge University Press, New York, 1980). Sociology Guide, Conflict Theories [online], (SociologyGuide.com, 2014). Available from: http://www.sociologyguide.com/social-stratification/Conflict-Theories.php [Accessed 30 March 2014]. Thio, Alek., Sociology: A Brief Introduction, 7th ed., (Pearson, 2008). Vossos, Tasos., The Importance of Sociological Theories [online], (eHow, [n.d]). Available from: http://www.ehow.com/info_11367824_importance-sociological-theories.html [Accessed 27 March 2014] Vanithamohanakumar, Introduction to Sociology [online], (Scribd.com, 8 July 2011). Available from: http://www.scribd.com/doc/59605267/introduction-to-sociology-V.2-0 [Accessed 23 March 2014]. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, Conflict Theories, [online]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_theories [Accessed 30 March 2014]. Wikipedia, the free encyclpedia, Sociological Theory, [online]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociological_theory [Accessed 28 March 2014]. 1

The Paradox of Perfection :: Free Essay Writer

The Paradox of Perfection In 1980, Arlene Skolnick’s â€Å"The Paradox of Perfection† was published in Wilson Quarterly around the time when the â€Å"ideal family† was highly regarded. The article expresses the idea that the perfect family dose not exist. This essay is a prime example of how society views on what a family should be, subconsciously affects the behavior and attitude of the average family. As a psychologist from University of California, Skolnick presents her views through a series of historical contexts and statistics. Skolnick ironically exemplifies through the media that the picture perfect family is nothing more than a myth; in other words she uses the media concepts of a family as a foothold to convey her thoughts. Although the article was written more than 20 years ago, Skolnick views projects a future representation of society and how their portrayal of the â€Å"ideal family† has not change. The essay covers an array of periods; a historical view to give a background to the essay, a present view to elaborate her thoughts and a future outlook to tie it all together. Through this process, the reader is able to follow and understand the author’s views, which are refurbished by historical evidence. Skolnick stated in the beginning of her essay, â€Å"Can the family be at once a cherished â€Å"value† and a trouble institution,† (paragraph 4) as a way to establish her agreement. The statement basically means that what was once thought as the ideal family is now the main reason for typical families’ downfall. Through a variety of metaphorical strategies, Skolnick is able to support her claims; the media and other image of the perfect family is an unrealistic model that average family use as a form of comparison. The author first address a general audience with her opening statement, which states the divorce rates, births out-of-wedlock, and presents a down to earth impression that captures any reads’ attention. Even though Skolnick is psychologist, she is able to express her views in a matter that appeals to the general-mass. I am able to understand and agree with Skolnick’s arguments to a point, due to the fact that I have lived in two different cultures and therefore able to appreciate her ideals. I can see why the author believes so strongly in her arguments because it is easily seen that the American life-hood is bases on the output from the media and a collection of society’s regulations that force the average man to behave in a certain matter.

Human Behaviour In Organization Essay

We need to study human behavior even as we participate in the day-to-day processes and activities of human life. The need to understand the behavior of others especially those we come in contact with, and the need to anticipate and predict how others may act in certain situations are important since we are affected by their actions. We study human behavior in order to have an understanding of the actions of people. Its professional analysis could very well help an organization achieve its goals and pave the way for more productive relationships among individuals in groups and among groups in the organization. Hellrieger and Slocum expressed . . . â€Å"events do not occur merely by chance, but rather, that events are linked together.† By understanding and learning to anticipate the behavior of others, we also learn to influence others as shown in Milton’s model of understanding, predicting, and influencing. The understanding of people’s behavior makes the anticipation and prediction of events easier and smoother. We can thus influence them to think, feel, and act accordingly. The study of human behavior is certainly indispensable in the formulation of laws, rules, policies, etc. Society cannot function at its maximum for the people if its components of the organization in which the individual belongs do not have guidelines that are appropriate and that provide for the satisfaction of his needs and for the attainment of his goals. The realm of science and technology will be useless without the study of human behavior for it is their aim to make man live better and easier. Scientists and technologists wouldn’t know what to invent if they are not familiar with man’s needs. Business, especially marketing, will not thrive without a study of people’s wants and desires. Man would not and cannot buy all the products and services the company offers. Selective buying is a behavior that an organization should be aware of and understand. For a firm, studying behavior can increase its productivity for it provides knowledge and information which can be the bases for improving its performance, for rational decision and policy-making, for better planning and organizing, personnel and human resources recruitment, screening, selection, promotion, and development. It is worthwhile to study human behavior primarily because we are part of the human race, and it is by studying human behavior that we look not only into the personality of others but into our personalities as well. We come to terms with ourselves, understand different aspects of our personality, and find ways to improve ourselves and grow. Through introspection, we create self-awareness, an important ingredient in relating ourselves with others. NATURE AND SCOPE OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR Any act of an individual person which is considered human behavior is a reflection of his thoughts, feelings, emotions, sentiments whether conscious or not. It mirrors his needs, values, motivation, aspirations, conflicts, and state of life. Behavior, therefore, consists of all human activities. Human behavior occurs anywhere and everywhere. It is committed alone, with another person, with a group or an organization. The principles and concepts that underlie behavior are basic. It is their implementation and practice that differ from group to group or from one country to another. Human behavior which is also called human act is different from act of man. When man performs an act with free will, he does a human act. He is responsible for such act which is performed with alternatives to choose from. It is free will from whence responsibility emanates and flows that makes man a human being perform human acts or human behavior. An act of man is performed by one who is forced to do so at the risk of his own life. He does not have any other alternative/s to choose from. He is not given the opportunity to use his free will and thus, he is not responsible for this act. He, therefore, commits an act of man. An example is a man marrying a woman at the point of a gun. Instincts and reflexes are other examples of acts of man. Human behavior can be understood best by developing frameworks from the behavioral sciences which represent a systematic body of knowledge pertaining to why and how people behave as they do. ASSUMPTIONS 1. Every person is significantly different from the moment of conception. From the time an individual is conceived, he undergoes a plethora of changes – physical, mental, social, psychological – as he grows and develops from childhood to adulthood. 2. Every person is a constantly active, goal-seeking organism. Whether consciously or unconsciously, he is goal-oriented. 3. Every person is dynamic. Status quo does not characterize his state since he is barraged by different forces around him. 4. The characteristics of an organization influence the behavior of the entire organization and, to a great extent, the behavior of individuals within it as well. 5. Behavior cannot be predicted with one hundred percent accuracy since it arises from the varying needs and value systems of many different people. 6. There are no simple formulas for working with people. No one best answer. No ideal organization exists, neither an ideal person. CONCEPTS 1. Almost all behavior is learned. This applies to adults and children whose learning can be altered. However, this is not true to a newly born infant and to a fetus in the mother’s womb. The former sucks milk from the mother’s breast through instinct. By and large, learning is the first step in behaving. Whatever is learned can be modified or changed 2. Human being adapt. In accordance with their needs and values, individuals adjust to their environment. When their new learnings are congruent with their value system, they adopt them. What is adopted becomes part of their culture. PRINCIPLES 1. Thorndike’s law of effect states that behavior which is followed by a satisfying state of affairs tends to be repeated but a behavior followed by an unsatisfactory conditions tends to be extinguished. 2. Stimuli are those forces which impact the sensory organs of our five sensory input channels – sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. The impact of stimuli is a function of frequency, recency, and felt intensity. Communication, in all cases, consists of the creation of stimuli. 3. Behavior is caused but its causality is uncertain and usually multiple. It may be classified as having either a rational (cognitive) or an emotional (affective) basis. 4. Classical conditioning is a powerful technique for altering the behavior of others. But man’s freedom of the will makes him responsible for his actions. 5. There are no two individuals who are alike in all dimensions. The differences become more striking as they are compared from the physical to the socio-psychological components. Hence, the great disparity in behavior even between twins, since behavior is a reflection of a person’s physical, mental, psychological characteristics. METHODS OF STUDYING HUMAN BEHAVIOR Human behavior is a phenomenon which was observed, described, and speculated on cursorily sans any formal and written objectives and procedures. The maintenance of good relationships between and among individuals and groups was considered an art which mainly used speculation, informal and irregular observation of people and incidents. Philosophy based on speculation and logic and physiology based on experimental observation were the only two main approaches to the study of human behavior. The study of human behavior as a science began only in the 19th century. It was an offshoot of the studies in various disciplines like psychology, sociology, anthropology, and economics. Its foundations are rooted in these sciences. The methods used in the study of human behavior are the same as those in other sciences – experiments, surveys and case method. It makes use of observation, interview, questionnaire, check list, scales psychological tests, and statistics. 1. THREE-LEVEL METHOD. Milton proposed a model of studying human behavior at three levels: individual, group, and organization. It is called the I-G-O Model. This classification is the basis for differentiating the content of the courses in human behavior offered at the three program levels in schools. At the undergraduate level, the individual is the focus of attention; in the masters program, emphasis is placed on the group,; and at the doctoral level, human behavior is studied at the organizational level. 2. INTERDISCIPLINARY MODEL. Human behavior in organization is inter- and multi-disciplinary. At the individual level, psychology provides knowledge of perception, motivation and learning, while physiology and anatomy gives information and principles on the body and how it works. At the group level. Sociology and other disciplines like social work and education have given much contribution. Sociology offers insights into the roles, norms, authority, power, influence and status. Anthropology and other sciences like economics, business, law and medicine have wrought more changes and influences on human behavior at the organizational level. Culture and its artifacts are the main contribution of anthropology in the study of behavior in organization. HUMAN BEHAVIOR INDIVIDUALGROUPORGANIZATION PsychologySociology Anthropology Physiology Social Work Economics, Business Anatomy Education Law, Medicine VARIOUS SCIENCES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR 3. DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL. People grow and move to higher levels of resourcefulness, creativity, competency, and self-realization through proper maintenance, recognition, and development programs. Keith and Davis call this the â€Å"human resources (supportive)approach.† These basic and potent needs are recognized and fulfilled by the organization which considers them as â€Å"the central resource in any organization and any society. To the extent that people are well screened and selected, maintained and supported, recognized and developed, they can bring in and develop the various artifacts of an organization : philosophy (mission, goals, objectives, aims), funds (equity, borrowings, loans), values (needs, responsibilities), facilities (land, building, equipment, supplies), and technology (processes, knowhow). People are the main crux and heart of the organization, the six components are at their beck and call. These six components affect the individual who alters his behavior in a context which he himself has created. 4. SYSTEMS MODEL. A social system is a complex and dynamic set of relation- ships among its actors interacting with one another. An organization is a social system consisting of various parts at its subsystems. The systems theory posits that the organization is an open system with internal and external factors impinging on its subsystems making it very fluid, tenuous, dynamic and complex and these parts are interdependent and interrelated with each other This concept is opposed to the traditional view of a closed system with independent and uninterrelated parts. 5. CONTINGENCY MODEL. The varied factors in each problematic situation may constitute a unique condition. The problem- solver must explicitly consider the specific conditions to which a problem relates instead of simply prescribing a solution which may have worked elsewhere but under different conditions. This means that â€Å"no solution can work under all circumstances.† Every problem must be studied and analyzed in light of complex factors that may br highly interrelated with each other.

Free Essays on Social Attire

Abstract A common saying is that first impressions are very important in the way people will perceive others for the rest of their social relationship. â€Å"Clothing and other appearance cues provide information about credibility, identity, and anticipated behaviors of others, and is used in initial interactions to answer the question â€Å"Who is this person?â€Å" (Bassett, 1979). In my research I will examine the question of how the factor of the professors’ attire influences a students perception of the competency and sociability of that professor. My participants will answer a questionnaire based on their perception of a male and female confederate shown in a picture in three different types of clothing. The questionnaire will consist of 30 items in two areas, competency and sociability. The participants will be asked to answer the questions concerning these two areas, based on their initial perception of the confederates seen above in the picture. I expect the results to sho w that there will be significant differences between the dress style and the ratings of competency and sociability. I also expect the results to show that when gender and type of clothing are compared with each other, the female in formal clothing will receive higher ratings in competency than the male in formal clothing. In addition, I expect my results to show that there is an interaction between the gender in the different clothing conditions and the ratings of competency and sociability. Based on this study, I hope to be able to conclude that the differences of ratings in competency and sociability due to the factor of the professors clothing are by far more significant as was found in previous research. Influence of Professors’ Clothing on Student’s Perception of Competency and Sociability Twenty years ago, professors across the country experienced an immense liberation. That liberation took place in terms of the dress code that used to be f... Free Essays on Social Attire Free Essays on Social Attire Abstract A common saying is that first impressions are very important in the way people will perceive others for the rest of their social relationship. â€Å"Clothing and other appearance cues provide information about credibility, identity, and anticipated behaviors of others, and is used in initial interactions to answer the question â€Å"Who is this person?â€Å" (Bassett, 1979). In my research I will examine the question of how the factor of the professors’ attire influences a students perception of the competency and sociability of that professor. My participants will answer a questionnaire based on their perception of a male and female confederate shown in a picture in three different types of clothing. The questionnaire will consist of 30 items in two areas, competency and sociability. The participants will be asked to answer the questions concerning these two areas, based on their initial perception of the confederates seen above in the picture. I expect the results to sho w that there will be significant differences between the dress style and the ratings of competency and sociability. I also expect the results to show that when gender and type of clothing are compared with each other, the female in formal clothing will receive higher ratings in competency than the male in formal clothing. In addition, I expect my results to show that there is an interaction between the gender in the different clothing conditions and the ratings of competency and sociability. Based on this study, I hope to be able to conclude that the differences of ratings in competency and sociability due to the factor of the professors clothing are by far more significant as was found in previous research. Influence of Professors’ Clothing on Student’s Perception of Competency and Sociability Twenty years ago, professors across the country experienced an immense liberation. That liberation took place in terms of the dress code that used to be f...

A History of African Slave Traders

A History of African Slave Traders During the era of the trans-Atlantic slave trade, Europeans did not have the power to invade African states or kidnap African slaves at will. For the most part, the 12.5 million slaves transported across the Atlantic Ocean were purchased from African slave traders. It is a piece of the triangle trade about which there are still many critical misperceptions. Motivations for Slavery One question that many Westerners have about African slavers, is why were they willing to sell their own people? Why would they sell Africans to Europeans? The simple answer to this question is that they did not see slaves as their own people. Blackness (as an identity or marker of difference) was a preoccupation of Europeans, not Africans. There was also in this era no sense of being African. (Indeed, to this day, individuals are more likely to identify as being African rather than, say, Kenyan only after leaving Africa.) Some slaves were prisoners of, and many of these may have been seen as enemies or rivals to those who sold them. Others were people who had fallen into debt. They were different by virtue of their status (what we might think of today as their class). Slavers also kidnapped people, but again, there was no reason they would inherently see slaves as their own. Slavery as a Part of Life It might be tempting to think that African slave traders did not know how bad European plantation slavery was, but there was a lot of movement across the Atlantic. Not all traders would have known about the horrors of the Middle Passage or what life awaited slaves, but others at least had an idea. There are always people willing to ruthlessly exploit others in the quest for money and power, but the story of the African slave trade goes much further than a few bad people. Slavery and the sale of slaves, though, were parts of life. The concept of not selling slaves to willing buyers would have seemed strange to many people up until the 1800s. The goal was not to protect slaves, but to ensure that oneself and ones kin were not reduced to slaves. A Self-Replicating Cycle As the slave trade intensified in the 16 and 1700s, it also became harder not to participate in the trade in some regions of West Africa. The enormous demand for African slaves led to the formation of a few states whose economy and politics were centered around slave raiding and trading. States and political factions that participated in the trade gained access to firearms and luxury goods, which could be used to secure political support. States and communities who were not actively participating in the slave trade were increasingly at a disadvantage. The Mossi Kingdom is an example of a state that resisted the slave trade until the 1800s when it began trading in slaves as well. Opposition to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade The Mossi Kingdom was not the only African state or community to resist selling slaves to Europeans. For instance, the king of the Kongo, Afonso I, who had converted to Catholicism, tried to stop the slave of slaves to Portuguese traders. He lacked the power, however, to police the whole of his territory, and traders as well as nobles engaged in the Trans-Atlantic slave trade to gain wealth and power. Alfonso tried writing to the Portuguese king and asking him to stop Portuguese traders from engaging in the slave trade, but his plea was ignored. The Benin Empire offers a very different example. Benin sold slaves to Europeans when it was expanding and fighting many wars - which produced prisoners of war. Once the state stabilized, it stopped trading slaves, until it started to decline in the 1700s. During this period of increasing instability, the state resumed participation in the slave trade.

Food Insecurity. Definition, Reasons, Causes and Status Essay

Food Insecurity. Definition, Reasons, Causes and Status - Essay Example In the discussion, the focus will remain on reviewing what food insecurity denotes, what causes it and the consequences that accrue thereof. The discussion is based on a critical evaluation of peer-reviewed literature beginning with the definition and then discussing what causes it, and how it emerges in the developing world. Defining and Contextualizing Food Insecurity The Context of Food Security Since the 1970s, the term food insecurity has been differently used to refer to numerous related but often diverse concepts. Yu, You, and Fan (2010) argue, â€Å"there are various descriptions of food security plus the concepts of food security that have evolved, in the previous 30 years, to reflect the transformation in official policy thinking† (p. 30). This variant understanding of food security and insecurity has been explored by Clay (2002) since the World Food Conference initiated a discussion of food security in the early 1970s, both at the national and international level. A s shall emerge hereunder, food security encompasses questions of food supply, food availability, food price stability, geographical locations and typology of available food (Bernstein, Crow and Johnson, 1992, pp. 34 - 71). However, to understand the term food insecurity, it is essential to first contextualize the term food security. According to the United Nations, food security should be defined as â€Å"all people at all times having both physical and economic access to the basic food they need† (Clay, 2002, p. 4). According to UN figures, nearly 1 billion people in the world today are not guaranteed that they can access, afford and always find adequate food. For these 2 billion people, they may not be hungry and in critical need of food, but they cannot guarantee that they will have anything to eat tomorrow to sufficiently sustain their health. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (2013), â€Å"a total of 842 million people in 2011–2013, or about one in eight individuals globally, were anticipated to be suffering from chronic hunger, regularly not getting enough food to conduct an active life† ( ¶7). While this figure is relatively lower when compared to the 868 million people reported between 2010 and 2012, and while the number of undernourished people has reduced with 17% from what was recorded between 1990 and 1992, food insecurity is still a major global problem. As such, they are insecure about the source of their requisite diets, where to find food, when and whether such food would be affordable when accessed (Curtis, Hubbard and Shepherd, 1988, 37). This context thus introduces the dynamics of food security, a complicated process determined by numerous factors from poverty levels to climatic conditions, from geography to governance, from education and awareness to culture (Grigg, 1993, p. 21; Curtis, Hubbard and Shepherd, 1988, p. 61; Bernstein, Crow and Johnson, 1992, p. 69; Kent, 1984, p. 23). The key question, therefore, is about guarantee that food will be available when needed, as well as which type of food will be avai

The Idea of Change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Idea of Change - Essay Example This strips the students of their creative power. The educator hence strives to regulate the way that the knowledge comes to the students and thus hinders their own thinking. Freire also related this banking philosophy of education to necrophily. It is mechanical thinking wherein the necrophilous person prefers memory versus experience, and having as opposed to being. It is in this act of controlling that the actual education of a person ceases. Freire offers the solution to this problem. There is a need to â€Å"transform the structure† so that the students can become â€Å"beings for themselves† instead of just being incorporated into this system. He further argues that true liberation does not alienate people and it is â€Å"not another deposit to be made†. He termed this liberation of education as â€Å"praxis,† a problem-posing education that which aims to consider people as conscious beings. As the banking system of education strives to maintain a â€Å"submersion of consciousness†, the problem-posing method aims for the â€Å"emergence of consciousness and critical intervention in reality.† On the other hand, Richard Rodriguez wrote an essay on â€Å"The Achievement of Desrie.† In this essay, Rodriguez wrote an account of how he found himself through education, and how in doing so, his life had drastically changed. As a boy, Rodriguez recounts how he has always admired his teachers, and how he had always been passionate about books – anxious and fervent to learn. He claimed that as he was a very good student, he was also a bad one as he was a certain kind of â€Å"scholarship boy†, described by Richard Hoggart (from whom he derived the term in â€Å"The Uses of Literacy†) as a boy who shifts between environments, the home and the classroom, which are both culturally contradicting. The ideas that the classroom offers to

Wk 5d1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Wk 5d1 - Essay Example Private IP addressing helps improve the networks security, besides conserving public address space. Private IP addressing is used for connecting client computers on a private network, for example in institutions. This addressing method allows for easier communication between network computers. Private networks allow the network administrator to arbitrary assign a local machine an IP address of his choice, if it falls within the range of private networks shown above. This is quite different from public networks. The nature of private networks restricts access to the private network. However, it is possible to connect two private networks by use of a device which allows Network Address Translation (NAT), for instance a router. A public IP address, on the other hand is allocated to each machine which connects to the internet where all IPs are unique. Therefore, it is not possible to have two computers sharing a public IP address on the internet. Public addressing enables multiple computers to connect over the internet and share information. Public IPs is assigned to each computer by the ISP when a computer connects to the gateway and so the user of the computer cannot change the public IP address assigned to his computer. A computer accessing the internet from a private network has both private and public IP addresses. In essence, it can be said that private IP is for communicating within the network while public IP is applied for internet

Sales and inventory documentation Essay Example for Free

Sales and inventory documentation Essay Why Inventory Control? Control of inventory, which typically represents 45% to 90% of all expenses for business, is needed to ensure that the business has the right goods on hand to avoid stock-outs, to prevent shrinkage (spoilage/theft), and to provide proper accounting. Many businesses have too much of their limited resource, capital, tied up in their major asset, inventory. Worse, they may have their capital tied up in the wrong kind of inventory. Inventory may be old, worn out, shopworn, obsolete, or the wrong sizes or colors, or there may be an imbalance among different product lines that reduces the customer appeal of the total operation. Inventory control systems range from eyeball systems to reserve stock systems to perpetual computer-run systems. Valuation of inventory is normally stated at original cost, market value, or current replacement costs, whichever is lowest. This practice is used because it minimizes the possibility of overstating assets. Inventory valuation and appropriate accounting practices are worth a book alone and so are not dealt with here in depth. The ideal inventory and proper merchandise turnover will vary from one market to another. Average industry figures serve as a guide for comparison. Too large an inventory may not be justified because the turnover does not warrant investment. On the other hand, because products are not available to meet demand, too small an inventory may minimize sales and profits as customers go somewhere else to buy what they want where it is immediately available. Minimum inventories based on reordering time need to become important aspects of buying activity. Carrying costs, material purchases, and storage costs are all expensive. However, stockouts are expensive also. All of those costs can be minimized by efficient inventory policies. Inventory Control Inventory control involves the procurement, care and disposition of materials. There are three kinds of inventory that are of concern to managers: †¢ †¢ Raw materials, In-process or semi-finished goods, †¢ Finished goods. If a manager effectively controls these three types of inventory, capital can be released that may be tied up in unnecessary inventory, production control can be improved and can protect against obsolescence, deterioration and/or theft, Handout 06/02 – Inventory Control Page 1 of 8 The reasons for inventory control are: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Helps balance the stock as to value, size, color, style, and price line in proportion to demand or sales trends. Help plan the winners as well as move slow sellers Helps secure the best rate of stock turnover for each item. Helps reduce expenses and markdowns. Helps maintain a business reputation for always having new, fresh merchandise in wanted sizes and colors. Three major approaches can be used for inventory control in any type and size of operation. The actual system selected will depend upon the type of operation, the amount of goods. The Eyeball System This is the standard inventory control system for the vast majority of small retail and many small manufacturing operations and is very simple in application. The key manager stands in the middle of the store or manufacturing area and looks around. If he or she happens to notice that some items are out of stock, they are reordered. In retailing, the difficulty with the eyeball system is that a particularly good item may be out of stock for sometime before anyone notices. Throughout the time it is out of stock, sales are being lost on it. Similarly, in a small manufacturing operation, low stocks of some particularly critical item may not be noticed until there are none left. Then production suffers until the supply of that part can be replenished. Such unsystematic but simple retailers and manufacturers to their inherent disadvantage. Reserve Stock (or Brown Bag) System This approach is much more systematic than the eyeball system. It involves keeping a reserve stock of items aside, often literally in a brown bag placed at the rear of the stock bin or storage area. When the last unit of open inventory is used, the brown bag of reserve stock is opened and the new supplies it contains are placed in the bin as open stock. At this time, a reorder is immediately placed. If the reserve stock quantity has been calculated properly, the new shipment should arrive just as the last of the reserve stock is being used. In order to calculate the proper reserve stock quantity, it is necessary to know the rate of product usage and the order cycle delivery time. Thus, if the rate of product units sold is 100 units per week and the order cycle delivery time is two weeks, the appropriate reserve stock would consist of 200 units (I00u x 2w). This is fine as long as the two-week cycle holds. If the order cycle is extended, the reserve stock quantities must be increased. When the new order arrives, the reserve stock amount is packaged again and placed at the rear of the storage area. This is a very simple system to operate and one that is highly effective for virtually any type of organization. The variations on the reserve stock system merely involve the management of the reserve stock itself. Larger  items may remain in inventory but be cordoned off in some way to indicate that it is the reserve stock and should trigger a reorder. Handout 06/02 – Inventory Control Page 2 of 8 Perpetual Inventory Systems Various types of perpetual inventory systems include manual, card-oriented, and computer- operated systems. In computer-operated systems, a programmed instruction referred to commonly as a trigger, automatically transmits an order to the appropriate vendor once supplies fall below a prescribed level. The purpose of each of the three types of perpetual inventory approaches is to tally either the unit use or the dollar use (or both) of different items and product lines. This information will serve to help avoid stock-outs and to maintain a constant evaluation of the sales of different product lines to see where the emphasis should be placed for both selling and buying. Stock Control A stock control system should keep you aware of the quantity of each kind of merchandise on hand. An effective system will provide you with a guide for what, when, and how much to buy of each style, color, size, price and brand. It will reduce the number of lost sales resulting from being out of stock of merchandise in popular demand. The system will also locate slow selling articles and help indicate changes in customer preferences. The size of your establishment and the number of people employed are determining factors in devising an effective stock control plan. Can you keep control by observation? Should you use on-hand/onorder/sold records? Detachable ticket stubs? Checklists? And/or physical inventory? If so, how often? With the observation method (the eyeball system), unless the people using it have an unusually sharp sense of quantity and sales patterns, it is difficult to keep a satisfactory check on merchandise depletion. It means that you record shortages of goods or reorders as the need for them occurs to you. Without a better checking system, orders may only be placed at the  time of the salesmans regular visit, regardless of when they are actually needed. Although it may be the simplest system, it also can often result in lost sales or production delays. Detachable stubs or tickets placed on merchandise provide a good means of control. The stubs, containing information identifying the articles, are removed at the time the items are sold. The accumulated stubs are then posted regularly to the perpetual inventory system by hand or through the use of an optical scanner. A checklist, often provided by wholesalers, is another counting tool. The checklist provides space to record the items carried, the selling price, cost price, and minimum quantities to be ordered of each. It also contains a column in which to note whether the stock on hand is sufficient and when to reorder. This is another very simple device that provides the level of information required to make knowledgeable decisions about effective inventory management. Most smaller operations today, except for the very smallest, are using some form of a perpetual online system to record the movement of inventories into and out of their facilities. In a retail operation, the clerk at the register merely scans the ticket with a reader, and the system shows the current price and removes the item from the inventory control system. A similar process occurs in a manufacturing operation, except that the sale is actually a transfer of the inventory from control to production. This is a particularly critical system in a large operation such as a grocery store where they regularly maintain 12,000 plus items. Often a vendor will provide on-site or computerized assistance needed to help their smaller customers maintain a good understanding of their own inventory levels and so keep them in balance Handout 06/02 – Inventory Control Page 3 of 8 Inventory Control Records Inventory control records are essential to making buy-and-sell decisions. Some companies control their stock by taking physical inventories at regular intervals, monthly or quarterly. Others use a dollar inventory record that  gives a rough idea of what the inventory may be from day to day in terms of dollars. If your stock is made up of thousands of items, as it is for a convenience type store, dollar control may be more practical than physical control. However, even with this method, an inventory count must be taken periodically to verify the levels of inventory by item. Perpetual inventory control records are most practical for big-ticket items. With such items it is quite suitable to hand count the starting inventory, maintain a card for each item or group of items, and reduce the item count each time a unit is sold or transferred out of inventory. Periodic physical counts are taken to verify the accuracy of the inventory card. Out-of-stock sheets, sometimes called want sheets, notify the buyer that it is time to reorder an item. Experience with the rate of turnover of an item will help indicate the level of inventory at which the unit should be reordered to make sure that the new merchandise arrives before the stock is totally exhausted. Open-to-buy records help to prevent ordering more than is needed to meet demand or to stay within a budget. These records adjust your order rate to the sales rate. They provide a running account of the dollar amount that may be bought without departing significantly from the pre- established inventory levels. An open-to-buy record is related to the inventory budget. It is the difference between what has been budgeted and what has been spent. Each time a sale is made, open-to-buy is increased (inventory is reduced). Each time merchandise is purchased; open-to-buy is reduced (inventory is increased). The net effect is to help maintain a balance among product lies within the business, and to keep the business from getting overloaded in one particular area. Purchase order files keep track of what has been ordered and the status or expected receipt date of materials. It is convenient to maintain these files by using a copy of each purchase order that is written. Notations can be added or merchandise needs updated directly on the copy of the purchase order with respect to changes in price or delivery dates. Supplier files are valuable references on suppliers and can be very helpful in negotiating  price, delivery and terms. Extra copies of purchase orders can be used to create these files, organized alphabetically by supplier, and can provide a fast way to determine how much business is done with each vendor. Purchase order copies also serve to document ordering habits and procedures and so may be used to help reveal and/or resolve future potential problems. Returned goods files provide a continuous record of merchandise that has been returned to suppliers. They should indicate amounts, dates and reasons for the returns. This information is useful in controlling debits, credits and quality Issues. Price books, maintained in alphabetical order according to supplier, provide a record of purchase prices, selling prices, markdowns, and markups. It is important to keep this record completely up to date in order to be able to access the latest price and profit information on materials purchased for resale. Handout 06/02 – Inventory Control Page 4 of 8 Controlling Inventory Controlling inventory does not have to be an onerous or complex proposition. It is a process and thoughtful inventory management. There are no hard and fast rules to abide by, but some extremely useful guidelines to help your thinking about the subject. A five step process has been designed that will help any business bring this potential problem under control to think systematically thorough the process and allow the business to make the most efficient use possible of the resources represented. The final decisions, of course, must be the result of good judgment, and not the product of a mechanical set of formulas. STEP 1: Inventory Planning Inventory control requires inventory planning. Inventory refers to more than the goods on hand in the retail operation, service business, or manufacturing facility. It also represents goods that must be in transit for  arrival after the goods in the store or plant are sold or used. An ideal inventory control system would arrange for the arrival of new goods at the same moment the last item has been sold or used. The economic order quantity, or base orders, depends upon the amount of cash (or credit) available to invest in inventories, the number of units that qualify for a quantity discount from the manufacturer, and the amount of time goods spend in shipment. STEP 2: Establish order cycles If demand can be predicted for the product or if demand can be measured on a regular basis, regular ordering quantities can be setup that take into consideration the most economic relationships among the costs of preparing an order, the aggregate shipping costs, and the economic order cost. When demand is regular, it is possible to program regular ordering levels so that stock-outs will be avoided and costs will be minimized. If it is known that every so many weeks or months a certain quantity of goods will be sold at a steady pace, then replacements should be scheduled to arrive with equal regularity. Time should be spent developing a system tailored to the needs of each business. It is useful to focus on items whose costs justify such control, recognizing that in some cases control efforts may cost more the items worth. At the same time, it is also necessary to include low return items that are critical to the overall sales effort. If the business experiences seasonal cycles, it is important to recognize the demands that will be placed on suppliers as well as other sellers.  A given firm must recognize that if it begins to run out of product in the middle of a busy season, other sellers are also beginning to run out and are looking for more goods. The problem is compounded in that the producer may have already switched over to next season’s production and so is not interested in (or probably even capable of) filling any further orders for the current selling season. Production resources are likely to already be allocated to filling orders for the next selling season. Changes in this momentum would be extremely costly for both the supplier and the customer. On the other hand, because suppliers have problems with inventory control, just as sellers do, they may be interested in making deals to induce customers to purchase inventories offseason, usually at substantial savings. They want to shift the carrying costs of purchase and storage from the seller to the buyer. Thus, there are seasonal implications to inventory control as Handout 06/02 – Inventory Control Page 5 of 8 well, both positive and negative. The point is that these seasonable implications must be built into the planning process in order to support an effective inventory management system. STEP 3: Balance Inventory Levels Efficient or inefficient management of merchandise inventory by a firm is a major factor between healthy profits and operating at a loss. There are both market-related and budget-related issues that must be dealt with in terms of coming up with an ideal inventory balance: †¢ †¢ †¢ Is the inventory correct for the market being served? Does the inventory have the proper turnover? What is the ideal inventory for a typical retailer or wholesaler in this business? To answer the last question first, the ideal inventory is the inventory that does not lose profitable sales and can still justify the investment in each part of its whole. An inventory that is not compatible with the firm’s market will lose profitable sales. Customers who cannot find the items they desire in one store or from one supplier are forced to go to a competitor. Customer will be especially irritated if the item out of stock is one they would normally expect to find from such a supplier. Repeated experiences of this type will motivate customers to become regular customers of competitors. STEP 4: Review Stocks Items sitting on the shelf as obsolete inventory are simply dead capital. Keeping inventory up to date and devoid of obsolete merchandise is another critical aspect of good inventory control. This is particularly important with style merchandise, but it is important with any merchandise that is turning at a lower rate than the average stock turns for that particular business. One of the important principles newer sellers frequently find difficult is the need to mark down merchandise that is not moving well. Markups are usually highest when a new style first comes out. As the style fades, efficient sellers gradually begin to mark it down to avoid being stuck with large inventories, thus keeping inventory capital working. They will begin to mark down their inventory, take less gross margin, and return the funds to working capital rather than have their investment stand on the shelves as obsolete merchandise. Markdowns are an important part of the working capital cycle. Even though the margins on markdown sales are lower, turning these items into cash allows you to purchase other, more current goods, where you can make the margin you desire. Keeping an inventory fresh and up to date requires constant attention by any organization, large or small. Style merchandise should be disposed of before the style fades. Fad merchandise must have its inventory levels kept in line with the passing fancy. Obsolete merchandise usually must be sold at less than normal markup or even as loss leaders where it is priced more competitively. Loss leader pricing strategies can also serve to attract more consumer traffic for the business thus creating opportunities to sell other merchandise as well as well as the obsolete items. Technologically obsolete merchandise should normally be removed from inventory at any cost. Handout 06/02 – Inventory Control Page 6 of 8 Stock turnover is really the way businesses make money. It is not so much  the profit per unit of sale that makes money for the business, but sales on a regular basis over time that eventually results in profitability. The stock turnover rate is the rate at which the average inventory is replaced or turned over, throughout a pre-defined standard operating period, typically one year. It is generally seen as the multiple that sales represent of the average inventory for a given period of time. Turnover averages are available for virtually any industry or business maintaining inventories and having sales. These figures act as an efficient and effective benchmark with which to compare the business in question, in order to determine its effectiveness relative to its capital investment. Too frequent inventory turns can be as great a potential problem as too few. Too frequent inventory turns may indicate the business is trying to overwork a limited capital base, and may carry with it the attendant costs of stock-outs and unhappy and lost customers. Stock turns or turnover, is the number of times the average inventory of a given product is sold annually. It is an important concept because it helps to determine what the inventory level should be to achieve or support the sales levels predicted or desired. Inventory turnover is computed by dividing the volume of goods sold by the average inventory. Stock turns or inventory turnover can be calculated by the following equations: Stock Turn = Cost of Goods Sold Average Inventory at Cost Stock Turn = Sales Average Inventory at Sales Value If the inventory is recorded at cost, stock turn equals cost of goods sold divided by the average inventory. If the inventory is recorded at sales value, stock turn is equal to sales divided by average inventory. Stock turns four times a year on the average for many businesses. Jewelry stores are slow, with two turns a year, and grocery stores may go up to 45 turns a year. If the dollar value of a particular inventory compares favorably with  the industry average, but the turnover of the inventory is less than the industry average, a further analysis of that inventory is needed. Is it too heavy in some areas? Are there reasons that suggest more inventories are needed in certain categories? Are there conditions peculiar to that particular firm? The point is that all markets are not uniform and circumstances may be found that will justify a variation from average figures. Handout 06/02 – Inventory Control Page 7 of 8 In the accumulation of comparative data for any particular type of firm, a wide variation will be found for most significant statistical comparisons. Averages are just that, and often most firms in the group are somewhat different from that result. Nevertheless, they serve as very useful guides for the adequacy of industry turnover, and for other ratios as well. The important thing for each firm is to know how the firm compares with the averages and to deter- mine whether deviations from the averages are to its benefit or disadvantage. STEP 5: Follow-up and Control Periodic reviews of the inventory to detect slow-moving or obsolete stock and to identify fast sellers are essential for proper inventory management. Taking regular and periodic inventories must be more than just totaling the costs. Any clerk can do the work of recording an inventory. However, it is the responsibility of key management to study the figures and review the items themselves in order to make correct decisions about the disposal, replacement, or discontinuance of different segments of the inventory base. Just as an airline cannot make money with its airplanes on the ground, a firm cannot earn a profit in the absence of sales of goods. Keeping the inventory attractive to customers is a prime prerequisite for healthy sales. Again, the sellers inventory is usually his largest investment. It will earn profits in direct proportion to the effort and skill applied in its  management. Inventory quantities must be organized and measured carefully. Minimum stocks must be assured to prevent stock-outs or the lack of product. At the same time, they must be balanced against excessive inventory because of carrying costs. In larger retail organizations and in many manufacturing operations, purchasing has evolved as a distinct new and separate phase of management to achieve the dual objective of higher turnover and lower investment. If this type of strategy is to be utilized, however, extremely careful attention and constant review must be built into the management system in order to avoid getting caught short by unexpected changes in the larger business environment. Caution and periodic review of reorder points and quantities are a must. Individual market size of some products can change suddenly and corrections should be made. Source: U.S. Small Business Administration Edited by SCORE 471 Handout 06/02 – Inventory Control Page 8 of 8