Wk 5d1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Wk 5d1 - Essay Example Private IP addressing helps improve the networks security, besides conserving public address space. Private IP addressing is used for connecting client computers on a private network, for example in institutions. This addressing method allows for easier communication between network computers. Private networks allow the network administrator to arbitrary assign a local machine an IP address of his choice, if it falls within the range of private networks shown above. This is quite different from public networks. The nature of private networks restricts access to the private network. However, it is possible to connect two private networks by use of a device which allows Network Address Translation (NAT), for instance a router. A public IP address, on the other hand is allocated to each machine which connects to the internet where all IPs are unique. Therefore, it is not possible to have two computers sharing a public IP address on the internet. Public addressing enables multiple computers to connect over the internet and share information. Public IPs is assigned to each computer by the ISP when a computer connects to the gateway and so the user of the computer cannot change the public IP address assigned to his computer. A computer accessing the internet from a private network has both private and public IP addresses. In essence, it can be said that private IP is for communicating within the network while public IP is applied for internet

Sales and inventory documentation Essay Example for Free

Sales and inventory documentation Essay Why Inventory Control? Control of inventory, which typically represents 45% to 90% of all expenses for business, is needed to ensure that the business has the right goods on hand to avoid stock-outs, to prevent shrinkage (spoilage/theft), and to provide proper accounting. Many businesses have too much of their limited resource, capital, tied up in their major asset, inventory. Worse, they may have their capital tied up in the wrong kind of inventory. Inventory may be old, worn out, shopworn, obsolete, or the wrong sizes or colors, or there may be an imbalance among different product lines that reduces the customer appeal of the total operation. Inventory control systems range from eyeball systems to reserve stock systems to perpetual computer-run systems. Valuation of inventory is normally stated at original cost, market value, or current replacement costs, whichever is lowest. This practice is used because it minimizes the possibility of overstating assets. Inventory valuation and appropriate accounting practices are worth a book alone and so are not dealt with here in depth. The ideal inventory and proper merchandise turnover will vary from one market to another. Average industry figures serve as a guide for comparison. Too large an inventory may not be justified because the turnover does not warrant investment. On the other hand, because products are not available to meet demand, too small an inventory may minimize sales and profits as customers go somewhere else to buy what they want where it is immediately available. Minimum inventories based on reordering time need to become important aspects of buying activity. Carrying costs, material purchases, and storage costs are all expensive. However, stockouts are expensive also. All of those costs can be minimized by efficient inventory policies. Inventory Control Inventory control involves the procurement, care and disposition of materials. There are three kinds of inventory that are of concern to managers: †¢ †¢ Raw materials, In-process or semi-finished goods, †¢ Finished goods. If a manager effectively controls these three types of inventory, capital can be released that may be tied up in unnecessary inventory, production control can be improved and can protect against obsolescence, deterioration and/or theft, Handout 06/02 – Inventory Control Page 1 of 8 The reasons for inventory control are: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Helps balance the stock as to value, size, color, style, and price line in proportion to demand or sales trends. Help plan the winners as well as move slow sellers Helps secure the best rate of stock turnover for each item. Helps reduce expenses and markdowns. Helps maintain a business reputation for always having new, fresh merchandise in wanted sizes and colors. Three major approaches can be used for inventory control in any type and size of operation. The actual system selected will depend upon the type of operation, the amount of goods. The Eyeball System This is the standard inventory control system for the vast majority of small retail and many small manufacturing operations and is very simple in application. The key manager stands in the middle of the store or manufacturing area and looks around. If he or she happens to notice that some items are out of stock, they are reordered. In retailing, the difficulty with the eyeball system is that a particularly good item may be out of stock for sometime before anyone notices. Throughout the time it is out of stock, sales are being lost on it. Similarly, in a small manufacturing operation, low stocks of some particularly critical item may not be noticed until there are none left. Then production suffers until the supply of that part can be replenished. Such unsystematic but simple retailers and manufacturers to their inherent disadvantage. Reserve Stock (or Brown Bag) System This approach is much more systematic than the eyeball system. It involves keeping a reserve stock of items aside, often literally in a brown bag placed at the rear of the stock bin or storage area. When the last unit of open inventory is used, the brown bag of reserve stock is opened and the new supplies it contains are placed in the bin as open stock. At this time, a reorder is immediately placed. If the reserve stock quantity has been calculated properly, the new shipment should arrive just as the last of the reserve stock is being used. In order to calculate the proper reserve stock quantity, it is necessary to know the rate of product usage and the order cycle delivery time. Thus, if the rate of product units sold is 100 units per week and the order cycle delivery time is two weeks, the appropriate reserve stock would consist of 200 units (I00u x 2w). This is fine as long as the two-week cycle holds. If the order cycle is extended, the reserve stock quantities must be increased. When the new order arrives, the reserve stock amount is packaged again and placed at the rear of the storage area. This is a very simple system to operate and one that is highly effective for virtually any type of organization. The variations on the reserve stock system merely involve the management of the reserve stock itself. Larger  items may remain in inventory but be cordoned off in some way to indicate that it is the reserve stock and should trigger a reorder. Handout 06/02 – Inventory Control Page 2 of 8 Perpetual Inventory Systems Various types of perpetual inventory systems include manual, card-oriented, and computer- operated systems. In computer-operated systems, a programmed instruction referred to commonly as a trigger, automatically transmits an order to the appropriate vendor once supplies fall below a prescribed level. The purpose of each of the three types of perpetual inventory approaches is to tally either the unit use or the dollar use (or both) of different items and product lines. This information will serve to help avoid stock-outs and to maintain a constant evaluation of the sales of different product lines to see where the emphasis should be placed for both selling and buying. Stock Control A stock control system should keep you aware of the quantity of each kind of merchandise on hand. An effective system will provide you with a guide for what, when, and how much to buy of each style, color, size, price and brand. It will reduce the number of lost sales resulting from being out of stock of merchandise in popular demand. The system will also locate slow selling articles and help indicate changes in customer preferences. The size of your establishment and the number of people employed are determining factors in devising an effective stock control plan. Can you keep control by observation? Should you use on-hand/onorder/sold records? Detachable ticket stubs? Checklists? And/or physical inventory? If so, how often? With the observation method (the eyeball system), unless the people using it have an unusually sharp sense of quantity and sales patterns, it is difficult to keep a satisfactory check on merchandise depletion. It means that you record shortages of goods or reorders as the need for them occurs to you. Without a better checking system, orders may only be placed at the  time of the salesmans regular visit, regardless of when they are actually needed. Although it may be the simplest system, it also can often result in lost sales or production delays. Detachable stubs or tickets placed on merchandise provide a good means of control. The stubs, containing information identifying the articles, are removed at the time the items are sold. The accumulated stubs are then posted regularly to the perpetual inventory system by hand or through the use of an optical scanner. A checklist, often provided by wholesalers, is another counting tool. The checklist provides space to record the items carried, the selling price, cost price, and minimum quantities to be ordered of each. It also contains a column in which to note whether the stock on hand is sufficient and when to reorder. This is another very simple device that provides the level of information required to make knowledgeable decisions about effective inventory management. Most smaller operations today, except for the very smallest, are using some form of a perpetual online system to record the movement of inventories into and out of their facilities. In a retail operation, the clerk at the register merely scans the ticket with a reader, and the system shows the current price and removes the item from the inventory control system. A similar process occurs in a manufacturing operation, except that the sale is actually a transfer of the inventory from control to production. This is a particularly critical system in a large operation such as a grocery store where they regularly maintain 12,000 plus items. Often a vendor will provide on-site or computerized assistance needed to help their smaller customers maintain a good understanding of their own inventory levels and so keep them in balance Handout 06/02 – Inventory Control Page 3 of 8 Inventory Control Records Inventory control records are essential to making buy-and-sell decisions. Some companies control their stock by taking physical inventories at regular intervals, monthly or quarterly. Others use a dollar inventory record that  gives a rough idea of what the inventory may be from day to day in terms of dollars. If your stock is made up of thousands of items, as it is for a convenience type store, dollar control may be more practical than physical control. However, even with this method, an inventory count must be taken periodically to verify the levels of inventory by item. Perpetual inventory control records are most practical for big-ticket items. With such items it is quite suitable to hand count the starting inventory, maintain a card for each item or group of items, and reduce the item count each time a unit is sold or transferred out of inventory. Periodic physical counts are taken to verify the accuracy of the inventory card. Out-of-stock sheets, sometimes called want sheets, notify the buyer that it is time to reorder an item. Experience with the rate of turnover of an item will help indicate the level of inventory at which the unit should be reordered to make sure that the new merchandise arrives before the stock is totally exhausted. Open-to-buy records help to prevent ordering more than is needed to meet demand or to stay within a budget. These records adjust your order rate to the sales rate. They provide a running account of the dollar amount that may be bought without departing significantly from the pre- established inventory levels. An open-to-buy record is related to the inventory budget. It is the difference between what has been budgeted and what has been spent. Each time a sale is made, open-to-buy is increased (inventory is reduced). Each time merchandise is purchased; open-to-buy is reduced (inventory is increased). The net effect is to help maintain a balance among product lies within the business, and to keep the business from getting overloaded in one particular area. Purchase order files keep track of what has been ordered and the status or expected receipt date of materials. It is convenient to maintain these files by using a copy of each purchase order that is written. Notations can be added or merchandise needs updated directly on the copy of the purchase order with respect to changes in price or delivery dates. Supplier files are valuable references on suppliers and can be very helpful in negotiating  price, delivery and terms. Extra copies of purchase orders can be used to create these files, organized alphabetically by supplier, and can provide a fast way to determine how much business is done with each vendor. Purchase order copies also serve to document ordering habits and procedures and so may be used to help reveal and/or resolve future potential problems. Returned goods files provide a continuous record of merchandise that has been returned to suppliers. They should indicate amounts, dates and reasons for the returns. This information is useful in controlling debits, credits and quality Issues. Price books, maintained in alphabetical order according to supplier, provide a record of purchase prices, selling prices, markdowns, and markups. It is important to keep this record completely up to date in order to be able to access the latest price and profit information on materials purchased for resale. Handout 06/02 – Inventory Control Page 4 of 8 Controlling Inventory Controlling inventory does not have to be an onerous or complex proposition. It is a process and thoughtful inventory management. There are no hard and fast rules to abide by, but some extremely useful guidelines to help your thinking about the subject. A five step process has been designed that will help any business bring this potential problem under control to think systematically thorough the process and allow the business to make the most efficient use possible of the resources represented. The final decisions, of course, must be the result of good judgment, and not the product of a mechanical set of formulas. STEP 1: Inventory Planning Inventory control requires inventory planning. Inventory refers to more than the goods on hand in the retail operation, service business, or manufacturing facility. It also represents goods that must be in transit for  arrival after the goods in the store or plant are sold or used. An ideal inventory control system would arrange for the arrival of new goods at the same moment the last item has been sold or used. The economic order quantity, or base orders, depends upon the amount of cash (or credit) available to invest in inventories, the number of units that qualify for a quantity discount from the manufacturer, and the amount of time goods spend in shipment. STEP 2: Establish order cycles If demand can be predicted for the product or if demand can be measured on a regular basis, regular ordering quantities can be setup that take into consideration the most economic relationships among the costs of preparing an order, the aggregate shipping costs, and the economic order cost. When demand is regular, it is possible to program regular ordering levels so that stock-outs will be avoided and costs will be minimized. If it is known that every so many weeks or months a certain quantity of goods will be sold at a steady pace, then replacements should be scheduled to arrive with equal regularity. Time should be spent developing a system tailored to the needs of each business. It is useful to focus on items whose costs justify such control, recognizing that in some cases control efforts may cost more the items worth. At the same time, it is also necessary to include low return items that are critical to the overall sales effort. If the business experiences seasonal cycles, it is important to recognize the demands that will be placed on suppliers as well as other sellers.  A given firm must recognize that if it begins to run out of product in the middle of a busy season, other sellers are also beginning to run out and are looking for more goods. The problem is compounded in that the producer may have already switched over to next season’s production and so is not interested in (or probably even capable of) filling any further orders for the current selling season. Production resources are likely to already be allocated to filling orders for the next selling season. Changes in this momentum would be extremely costly for both the supplier and the customer. On the other hand, because suppliers have problems with inventory control, just as sellers do, they may be interested in making deals to induce customers to purchase inventories offseason, usually at substantial savings. They want to shift the carrying costs of purchase and storage from the seller to the buyer. Thus, there are seasonal implications to inventory control as Handout 06/02 – Inventory Control Page 5 of 8 well, both positive and negative. The point is that these seasonable implications must be built into the planning process in order to support an effective inventory management system. STEP 3: Balance Inventory Levels Efficient or inefficient management of merchandise inventory by a firm is a major factor between healthy profits and operating at a loss. There are both market-related and budget-related issues that must be dealt with in terms of coming up with an ideal inventory balance: †¢ †¢ †¢ Is the inventory correct for the market being served? Does the inventory have the proper turnover? What is the ideal inventory for a typical retailer or wholesaler in this business? To answer the last question first, the ideal inventory is the inventory that does not lose profitable sales and can still justify the investment in each part of its whole. An inventory that is not compatible with the firm’s market will lose profitable sales. Customers who cannot find the items they desire in one store or from one supplier are forced to go to a competitor. Customer will be especially irritated if the item out of stock is one they would normally expect to find from such a supplier. Repeated experiences of this type will motivate customers to become regular customers of competitors. STEP 4: Review Stocks Items sitting on the shelf as obsolete inventory are simply dead capital. Keeping inventory up to date and devoid of obsolete merchandise is another critical aspect of good inventory control. This is particularly important with style merchandise, but it is important with any merchandise that is turning at a lower rate than the average stock turns for that particular business. One of the important principles newer sellers frequently find difficult is the need to mark down merchandise that is not moving well. Markups are usually highest when a new style first comes out. As the style fades, efficient sellers gradually begin to mark it down to avoid being stuck with large inventories, thus keeping inventory capital working. They will begin to mark down their inventory, take less gross margin, and return the funds to working capital rather than have their investment stand on the shelves as obsolete merchandise. Markdowns are an important part of the working capital cycle. Even though the margins on markdown sales are lower, turning these items into cash allows you to purchase other, more current goods, where you can make the margin you desire. Keeping an inventory fresh and up to date requires constant attention by any organization, large or small. Style merchandise should be disposed of before the style fades. Fad merchandise must have its inventory levels kept in line with the passing fancy. Obsolete merchandise usually must be sold at less than normal markup or even as loss leaders where it is priced more competitively. Loss leader pricing strategies can also serve to attract more consumer traffic for the business thus creating opportunities to sell other merchandise as well as well as the obsolete items. Technologically obsolete merchandise should normally be removed from inventory at any cost. Handout 06/02 – Inventory Control Page 6 of 8 Stock turnover is really the way businesses make money. It is not so much  the profit per unit of sale that makes money for the business, but sales on a regular basis over time that eventually results in profitability. The stock turnover rate is the rate at which the average inventory is replaced or turned over, throughout a pre-defined standard operating period, typically one year. It is generally seen as the multiple that sales represent of the average inventory for a given period of time. Turnover averages are available for virtually any industry or business maintaining inventories and having sales. These figures act as an efficient and effective benchmark with which to compare the business in question, in order to determine its effectiveness relative to its capital investment. Too frequent inventory turns can be as great a potential problem as too few. Too frequent inventory turns may indicate the business is trying to overwork a limited capital base, and may carry with it the attendant costs of stock-outs and unhappy and lost customers. Stock turns or turnover, is the number of times the average inventory of a given product is sold annually. It is an important concept because it helps to determine what the inventory level should be to achieve or support the sales levels predicted or desired. Inventory turnover is computed by dividing the volume of goods sold by the average inventory. Stock turns or inventory turnover can be calculated by the following equations: Stock Turn = Cost of Goods Sold Average Inventory at Cost Stock Turn = Sales Average Inventory at Sales Value If the inventory is recorded at cost, stock turn equals cost of goods sold divided by the average inventory. If the inventory is recorded at sales value, stock turn is equal to sales divided by average inventory. Stock turns four times a year on the average for many businesses. Jewelry stores are slow, with two turns a year, and grocery stores may go up to 45 turns a year. If the dollar value of a particular inventory compares favorably with  the industry average, but the turnover of the inventory is less than the industry average, a further analysis of that inventory is needed. Is it too heavy in some areas? Are there reasons that suggest more inventories are needed in certain categories? Are there conditions peculiar to that particular firm? The point is that all markets are not uniform and circumstances may be found that will justify a variation from average figures. Handout 06/02 – Inventory Control Page 7 of 8 In the accumulation of comparative data for any particular type of firm, a wide variation will be found for most significant statistical comparisons. Averages are just that, and often most firms in the group are somewhat different from that result. Nevertheless, they serve as very useful guides for the adequacy of industry turnover, and for other ratios as well. The important thing for each firm is to know how the firm compares with the averages and to deter- mine whether deviations from the averages are to its benefit or disadvantage. STEP 5: Follow-up and Control Periodic reviews of the inventory to detect slow-moving or obsolete stock and to identify fast sellers are essential for proper inventory management. Taking regular and periodic inventories must be more than just totaling the costs. Any clerk can do the work of recording an inventory. However, it is the responsibility of key management to study the figures and review the items themselves in order to make correct decisions about the disposal, replacement, or discontinuance of different segments of the inventory base. Just as an airline cannot make money with its airplanes on the ground, a firm cannot earn a profit in the absence of sales of goods. Keeping the inventory attractive to customers is a prime prerequisite for healthy sales. Again, the sellers inventory is usually his largest investment. It will earn profits in direct proportion to the effort and skill applied in its  management. Inventory quantities must be organized and measured carefully. Minimum stocks must be assured to prevent stock-outs or the lack of product. At the same time, they must be balanced against excessive inventory because of carrying costs. In larger retail organizations and in many manufacturing operations, purchasing has evolved as a distinct new and separate phase of management to achieve the dual objective of higher turnover and lower investment. If this type of strategy is to be utilized, however, extremely careful attention and constant review must be built into the management system in order to avoid getting caught short by unexpected changes in the larger business environment. Caution and periodic review of reorder points and quantities are a must. Individual market size of some products can change suddenly and corrections should be made. Source: U.S. Small Business Administration Edited by SCORE 471 Handout 06/02 – Inventory Control Page 8 of 8

Maternal Mortality Rate in Pakistan

Maternal Mortality Rate in Pakistan Maternal Mortality a Public Health Issue Shahida Abbasi Introduction Maternal mortality refers to when a woman dies during pregnancy or within six weeks after delivery. There are many factors such as biological, socio-economic, cultural and availability of quality Reproductive Health Services (RHS) in the country which contribute to the alarming figure of Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR). Pregnancy is a normal process in which women experience some physiological changes as it is essential for fetal growth and development. During pregnancy women need healthy diet, antenatal checkup for pregnancy progress and identification of dangers signs and proper treatment. Unfortunately due to certain reasons these needs are not satisfied and resulted in death of the mother. This paper aims to in-depth analysis of the determinants of MM. Significant of the Issue Every year more than 500,000 women die during childbirth or from pregnancy-related causes worldwide. 99% maternal deaths occur in developing country (WHO, 2005) as RHS, and family planning services are not easily accessible and affordable. According to UNDP’s report Roca (2013) Pakistan has highest mortality ratio 260/100,000 per live births in the region. Socio economic determinants Poverty Poverty plays as a barrier to satisfy basic human needs and to access reproductive health services which contribute to maternal mortality. Current global economic crises adversely affected specially marginalized poor women. Escalation in fuel prizes made the food items so expensive that it is beyond the capacity of the poor to buy. Due to inadequate quantity and quality of food intake, the pregnant women suffer with nutritional deficiency anemia. A study conducted by Khan, Fatima, Imran and Khan (2010) in Rawalpindi, to assess the risk factors associated with the nutritional deficiency anaemia revealed that majority of the pregnant women were anaemic due to iron deficiency followed by folate and cobalamin and all these belonged to low socio-economic group. Moreover, these nutritional deficit anemic women are at greater risk of having postpartum hemorrhage and sepsis. Furthermore, cost of RHS such as formal fee, screening, purchasing of medicine and travelling acts as barrier for wome n to obtain care. In case of emergency obstetric complications the cost of treatment goes much high and causes the delay in treatment. A qualitative study by Ronis, Mehboob, Masood, Amjad, Nishtar (2012) revealed that seventy percent of the patients sold their belonging or borrowed money in order to pay for delivery charges. Poverty is a great barrier for pregnant women in approaching family planning and counseling services. National Institute of Population Study (NIPS) [Pakistan] and ICF International. 2013. depicts that in rural areas twenty percent of married women have an unmet contraception needs that increase the chances of unwanted pregnancies leading to abortion. A study conducted by Fawad, Naz, Islam, Zaffar, Abbasi (2011) over the period of 5 years in Abbottabad calculated the MMR 1,057/100,000 live births. All the 78 patients who died belonged to low socioeconomic status and majority of them were illiterate. Female literacy Poverty effects female education as they cannot afford even primary education. These women are not aware of their reproductive health rights and utilization of RHS. According to Lynd, (2007) the literacy rate of youth between the age 15 to 24 years of Pakistans female is (53%) comparatively lower than the boys’ literacy rate (77%) in the same age group. In-fact educated women are more autonomous in decision making and utilization of quality ante natal and perinatal services. It is also illustrated in National Institute of Population Studies (NIPS) [Pakistan] and ICF International. 2013National Institute of Population Study (NIPS) [Pakistan] and ICF International. 2013. that the antenatal care is widely received by women with secondary or higher education. Moreover, an international cross sectional study was conducted by Karlsen, et al. (2011) revealed that lower levels of maternal education were associated with higher maternal mortality. This depicts RHS are not being utilize by illiterate women. Cultural Cultural values are deeply rooted specially among poor and illiterate and it has significant impact on women’s health. It is cultural heritage that boys are nourished with rich food as compared to girls beside the fact girls that requirement good quality and quantity of food in order to carry out reproductive responsibilities. Moreover, in conservative families, women mobility is strictly prohibited even to obtain emergency obstetric care. As women are not financially empowered they totally depend on husband regarding their treatment. All the important decisions related to ante natal care, place of delivery and post natal visit are made by the mother in law or husband. Sometime the decisions related to reproductive health issue are made so late that pregnant woman’s condition gets worse. Moreover, women do not have the right to make independent decision for healthy timing and birth spacing which consequently lead to higher fertility one of the contributing factor to inc rease mortality. A qualitative study by Ronis et al., (2012) revealed that cultural norms in Pakistan restrict the women to opt RHS from female doctor only. Therefore their unavailability makes the services inaccessible. Gender Inequality Government has done much to decrease socio-economic gender inequalities on its part. As it is evident in the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report by Bekhouch, Hausmann, Tyson, and Zahidi (2013) Pakistan is on ranked 64 out of 136 countries in political empowerment of women. Pakistan had secured the second lowest ranking in the overall measure of gender-based biases. The cultural heritage and ethnic diversity have been playing role in mediating gender inequality. In-fact boys are provided with nutritious food and good quality of schooling as compared to girls. A report by Bekhouch et al. (2013)14 million girls and 18.3 million boys enrolled in basic education in 2006, this depicts the accessibility and affordability of girl’s education. Moreover, gender inequality is also reflected by the accessibility, affordability and acceptability of RHS. According to UNDP’s report Roca (2013) in Pakistan 260 per 100,000 live births, women die due to pregnancy relat ed causes reflects the commitment of the government to provide the RHS to marginalized women. Early marriages Early marriage is one of the customs which is mostly practiced in rural areas. Due to low socio economical resources parents cannot afford required amount of food especially to their daughters therefore, early marriages is considered one of the way to get rid of this burden. Thus early marriage leads to early pregnancy that is one of the factors contribute to MMR. Early marriages consequently lead high parity. The National Institute of Population Study (NIPS) [Pakistan] and ICF International. 2013. report indicated total fertility rate in rural areas is high (4.2) and it is age specific fertility which is strong indication of early childbearing. It is estimated that 30 percent of all marriages fall into the category of child marriage which is more common in interior Sindh (Dawn 2012-01-19). It is well reflected in PDHS 2012-2013, that eight percent of teenage girls became mothers or expecting their first child. According to Roca (2013) Adolescent fertility rate is 28.1per 100,000 liv e birth which depicts the strong evidence of early marriage tradition in Pakistan. High Parity Early marriages consequently lead high parity. The National Institute of Population Study (NIPS) [Pakistan] and ICF International. 2013. indicates the total fertility rate in rural areas is high (4.2) and it is age specific fertility. Every time when a woman gets pregnant, the risk of dying increases. A study conducted by Rahim, Shafqat and Faiz (2011) also revealed that out of 268 deaths 47 percent were having more than five children thus supporting the evidence that maternal mortality is higher in grand multigravidas. These findings are consistent with the study of Fawad et al. (2011) out of 78 maternal deaths 49 patients were multigravida. Skilled Birth Attendant Due to dearth of skilled birth attendants (SBAs) in most of the rural areas deliveries are attended by unskilled traditional birth attendants (TBA) in Pakistan. These TBAs are not competently trained to detect dangers sign during pregnancy and delivery and to refer women for further treatment. The National Institute of Population Study (NIPS) [Pakistan] and ICF International. 2013. indicated that 67% of rural women received antenatal health care, while 41% women were assisted for deliver by SBAs. The reasons for less utilization of antenatal and delivery services are dearth of SBAs, geographical hindrance and long distance from health facility. Medical causes Obstructed labor, antepartum postpartum hemorrhage, sepsis and eclampsia are obstetric emergencies which need timely intervention. Mortality due to these cases can be prevented by proper antenatal care and detections of life threatening signs and timely referral to comprehensive emergency maternal obstetric neonatal care (EmOC) services. A retrospective, analytic study to analyze direct causes of maternal mortality over a period of seven years was conducted by Rahim et al. (2011) identified hemorrhage a leading cause followed by pregnancy induced hypertension, ruptured uterus and septicemia. A study conducted by Fawad et al. (2011) revealed that eclampsia was the leading cause of maternal deaths followed by sepsis and hemorrhage. Perhaps these precious lives could have been saved if the antenatal and natal services were provided or utilized. These studies calculated MMR 1311/100,000 and 1,057/100,000 live births live birth respectively a big figure as compared to UNDP’s report by Roca (2013) reported MMR 260/100,000 live birth. Abortion Abortion is one of the most important direct medical causes of maternal mortality, accounts for 12-40 % of overall global maternal deaths (WHO, 1994; According to a study conducted by Sathar, Singh, and Fikree (2007) an estimated 890,000 induced abortions are performed annually in Pakistan and 6 to 13% deaths occurred due to complications of abortion like hemorrhage, sepsis and visceral injuries (Jafarey, 2002). A descriptive observational study conducted by Shaikh, Razia, Abbassi, Rizwan and Abbasi (2010) revealed that 230 women were admitted with complications of unsafe abortion over period of one year. These complications include bleeding, uterine perforation, and gastro intestinal injury due to the procedure. Of these 12% women died as they developed septicemia. Deaths due to abortion can be prevented if the safe abortion care services are available by the skilled birth attendants at the door step. Poor Reproductive Health Services: It is quite encouraging that we have good health system that includes basic health unit (BHU), Rural Health Center (RHC) and Tertiary unit. Even though RHS services are available free of charges, BHU and RHC services are underutilized because of long distances to access. Moreover, poor referral system causes a delay in getting access and treatment. According Ali, Bhatti and Kuroiwa (2012) majority of the hospitals were lacking EmOC services and most referral hospitals equipped with EmOC were inaccessible. As in most of the rural areas broken roads and unavailability of proper ambulance services hinder the transfer of women in time. A cross-sectional survey on emergency obstetric care services facilities conducted by Ali et al. (2012) revealed that more than 50 percent of the public health facilities were lacking female doctor to provide Emoc services, thus creating a barrier for women to opt reproductive health services. Summary of analysis Maternal mortality is a public health issue that should be stem out. There are many factors which contribute to MM, and poverty is worse determinant that prevents female to receive education, have nutritious food and get access for reproductive health treatment. Reducing inequity and promoting female education is one of the key strategies to empower women and to bring their status equal to man. MM due to obstetric emergencies can be prevented by strengthening existing health facilities and increasing female skill birth attendants Recommendation Government and NGOs should have one focused agenda to invest in female education as this is their fundamental right. Empowering women with education consequently will improve their socio economic status and will reduce the gender inequity as well. Incentive should be provided to poor women who attend antenatal services in order to eliminate costs issue. Food supplement and medicine for correction of anemia should be free available to pregnant women. All the stake holders should collaborate in ensuring family planning and counseling services as to reduce unintended pregnancies which leads to induces abortions. Reproductive health services including Post Abortion Care (PAC) and family planning services should be made available, accessible and affordable within community settings. Civil society, educationist and health professionals should raise the awareness regarding Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929 and its reinforcement, as child marriage is widely practiced in some parts of the country. It is imperative to strengthen existing health care facilities in order to provide emergency obstetric care. More skilled birth attendants should be trained and deployed who will provide twenty four hours services and make timely referral in case of emergency obstetric care. Health professionals should focus on research as suggested by Travis, et al., (2004) that identification of common national and international barriers in several studies will guide the policy makers and donors to pay attention. References Ali, M., Bhatti, M. A., Kuroiwa, C. (2008). Challenges in access to and utilization of reproductive health care in Pakistan.Journal of Ayub Medical College Abbottabad,20(4), 3-7. Bekhouch, Y., Hausmann, R., Tyson, L. D., Zahidi, S. (2013, September). The global gender gap report 2013. Geneva Switzerland World Economic Forum 2013. Dawn (2012, January 19). Child marriage behind high mortality rate. Dawn. [Punjab]. Retrieved from:http://www.dawn.com/news/689119/childmarriage- behind-high-maternal-mortality-rate. Fawad, A., Naz, H., Islam, A., Zaffar, S., Abbasi, A. U. N. (2011). Maternal mortality in a tertiary care hospital. Journal of Ayub Medical College Abbottabad, 23(1), 92-5. Jafarey, S. N. (2002). Maternal mortality in Pakistancompilation of available data. J Pak Med Assoc, 52(12), 539-44. Karlsen, S., Say, L., Souza, J. P., Hogue, C. J., Calles, D. L., GÃ ¼lmezoglu, A. M., Raine, R. (2011). The relationship between maternal education and mortality among women giving birth in health care institutions: Analysis of the cross sectional WHO Global Survey on Maternal and Perinatal Health. BMC Public Health, 11(1), 606. Khan, D. A., Fatima, S., Imran, R., Khan, F. A. (2010). Iron, folate and cobalamin deficiency in anaemic pregnant females in tertiary care centre at Rawalpindi.J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad,22(1), 17-21. Lynd, D. (2007). The Education System in Pakistan.Retrieved June,30, 2012. National Institute of Population Study (NIPS) [Pakistan] and ICF International. 2013. Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (2012-13). Islamabad, Pakistan, and Cleverton, Maryland, USA: NIPS and ICF InternationalNational Institute of Population Studies (NIPS) [Pakistan] and ICF International. 2013.National Institute of Population Studies (NIPS) [Pakistan] and ICF International. 2013. Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 2012-13. Islamabad, Pakistan, and Calverton, Maryland, USA: NIPS and ICF International.National Institute of Population Studies (NIPS) [Pakistan] and ICF International. 2013. Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 2012-13. Islamabad, Pakistan, and Calverton, Maryland, USA: NIPS and ICF International. Rahim, R., Shafqat, T., Faiz, N. R. (2011). An analysis of direct causes of maternal mortality.Journal of Postgraduate Medical Institute (Peshawar-Pakistan),20(1). Roca, T. (2013). Human development Report 2013. The Rise of the South, Human Progress in a Diverse World.Afrique contemporaine, (2), 164-166. Ronis, K. A., Mehboob, G., Masood, M., Amjad, S., Nishtar, S. The Voice of Women. Sathar, Z. A., Singh, S., Fikree, F. F. (2007). Estimating the incidence of abortion in Pakistan. Studies in Family Planning, 38(1), 11-22. Shaikh, Z., Abbassi, R. M., Rizwan, N., Abbasi, S. (2010). Morbidity and mortality due to unsafe abortion in Pakistan.International Journal of Gynecology Obstetrics,110(1), 47-49. Travis, P., Bennett, S., Haines, A., Pang, T., Bhutta, Z., Hyder, A. A., Evans, T. (2004). Overcoming health-systems constraints to achieve the Millennium Development Goals. The Lancet, 364(9437), 900-906. WHO. World Health Report–2005. Make every mother and child count. Geneva: WHO; 2005.(2012, 19 January). National Institute of Population Studies (NIPS) [Pakistan] and ICF International. 2013. Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 2012-13. Islamabad, Pakistan, and Calverton, Maryland, USA: NIPS and ICF International.National Institute of Population Studies (NIPS) [Pakistan] and ICF International. 2013. Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 2012-13. Islamabad, Pakistan, and Calverton, Maryland, USA: NIPS and ICF International.

JFK ASSASINATION THEORY Essays -- essays papers

JFK ASSASINATION THEORY November 22, 1963, was one of the darkest days in the history of the United States of America. It was a day of complete turmoil. People all over the country dropped everything that they were doing. Children were permitted to go home from school and people huddled around their televisions in shock as they watched the day's events. On this day, John F. Kennedy was brutally assassinated in Dallas, Texas. John F. Kennedy was probably the most beloved and popular president to ever sit in the Oval Office. He was the icon of our country. His youth and charisma personified the American citizen. His beautiful wife and his two young children optimized the perfect family. His war hero and his highly educated manor earned the respect and reverence of American society. He was truly the "common man's" president. John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917 in Brookline, Massachusetts. The Kennedy name had already been known throughout the country and many of his relatives were involved in politics. He was destined to make political noise in our country. His family was also extremely wealthy. His father was a financier and a businessperson who was rumored to have made a great deal of money from bootlegging during the Prohibition era. John F. Kennedy lived lavishly throughout his life. He attended an expensive college prep school in Connecticut during his high school years. He then went on to study semesters at Princeton and Harvard. As he grew older and more involved in politics, his campaigns were known for his large staff and private jet trips. His wealth also helped fund a televised debate which helped him to secure the presidential campaign against Richard Nixon. John F. Kennedy definitely did not allow his wealth to turn him into a spoiled pretty boy. He participated in football, swimming, and sailing while attending Harvard. He also served in the Navy during World War II. As a matter of fact, JFK worked out for five months to strengthen his lower back, which was injured in a football game, just so he could be accepted into the service. While commanding the torpedo boat PT- 109, he was responsible for saving the lives of his crew members. This turned into one of the most famous war stories in history and was later turned into a movie. His bravery during this famous event won him the Navy and Marine... ...nd he fought for what he believed in. But, the uncommon man; the politicians, the big businessmen, the criminals; they hated him. They did not respect the fact that he spoke his mind and fought for his beliefs. As stated above, he made a lot of enemies during his term and in the end I think they got their revenge. Kennedy's assassination was definitely a conspiracy. I believe it was one that involved many, many different people throughout the world. I also believe that the US government helped cover up what really happened and knows who is truly behind this sick plot. Maybe one day we'll find out who really is responsible for his death; maybe not. Until then, John F. Kennedy's body rests in Arlington National Cemetery alongside his loving wife. People go there to this day and break down in tears. It is truly a sad place to be. It is sad to see how much he meant to his people. It is sad to see that a man that was loved by so many, was also hated by some. WORKS CITED 1.Johnson,Glen. "Camelot Revisited." Associated Press, 1995. 2. http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/home.htm 3. Http://til.ai.org/jfk.htm 4. Http://jfkennedy.8m.com 5. Http://www.historychannel.com JFK ASSASINATION THEORY Essays -- essays papers JFK ASSASINATION THEORY November 22, 1963, was one of the darkest days in the history of the United States of America. It was a day of complete turmoil. People all over the country dropped everything that they were doing. Children were permitted to go home from school and people huddled around their televisions in shock as they watched the day's events. On this day, John F. Kennedy was brutally assassinated in Dallas, Texas. John F. Kennedy was probably the most beloved and popular president to ever sit in the Oval Office. He was the icon of our country. His youth and charisma personified the American citizen. His beautiful wife and his two young children optimized the perfect family. His war hero and his highly educated manor earned the respect and reverence of American society. He was truly the "common man's" president. John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917 in Brookline, Massachusetts. The Kennedy name had already been known throughout the country and many of his relatives were involved in politics. He was destined to make political noise in our country. His family was also extremely wealthy. His father was a financier and a businessperson who was rumored to have made a great deal of money from bootlegging during the Prohibition era. John F. Kennedy lived lavishly throughout his life. He attended an expensive college prep school in Connecticut during his high school years. He then went on to study semesters at Princeton and Harvard. As he grew older and more involved in politics, his campaigns were known for his large staff and private jet trips. His wealth also helped fund a televised debate which helped him to secure the presidential campaign against Richard Nixon. John F. Kennedy definitely did not allow his wealth to turn him into a spoiled pretty boy. He participated in football, swimming, and sailing while attending Harvard. He also served in the Navy during World War II. As a matter of fact, JFK worked out for five months to strengthen his lower back, which was injured in a football game, just so he could be accepted into the service. While commanding the torpedo boat PT- 109, he was responsible for saving the lives of his crew members. This turned into one of the most famous war stories in history and was later turned into a movie. His bravery during this famous event won him the Navy and Marine... ...nd he fought for what he believed in. But, the uncommon man; the politicians, the big businessmen, the criminals; they hated him. They did not respect the fact that he spoke his mind and fought for his beliefs. As stated above, he made a lot of enemies during his term and in the end I think they got their revenge. Kennedy's assassination was definitely a conspiracy. I believe it was one that involved many, many different people throughout the world. I also believe that the US government helped cover up what really happened and knows who is truly behind this sick plot. Maybe one day we'll find out who really is responsible for his death; maybe not. Until then, John F. Kennedy's body rests in Arlington National Cemetery alongside his loving wife. People go there to this day and break down in tears. It is truly a sad place to be. It is sad to see how much he meant to his people. It is sad to see that a man that was loved by so many, was also hated by some. WORKS CITED 1.Johnson,Glen. "Camelot Revisited." Associated Press, 1995. 2. http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/home.htm 3. Http://til.ai.org/jfk.htm 4. Http://jfkennedy.8m.com 5. Http://www.historychannel.com

Digital Bangladesh

The golden jubilee of the independence of Bangladesh would be observed in 2021. The country has already fixed its target of achieving ‘Digital Bangladesh' by that time. It is a timely expectation for proper positioning the country among other hi-tech countries globally. A country goes digital means it will be an e-state means all its activities of governance, commerce, education, agriculture etc. , will be powered by computer and internet. Today information communication technology (ICT) drives the technological and economic advancement of the developed as well as emerging economies.The goal of establishing such digital country would bring success in the ICT sector, which cannot be ignored in this 21st century. Heading towards that target will link every device such as cell phone, internet, computer, e-learning, e-governance etc. Today the entire world is gradually becoming a Digital Planet. Almost every state is heading towards a knowledge-based society and Bangladesh cannot s tay away from the advantages out of it. Though it is very easy to speak about such a dream, i. e. making a country digital, but at the same time it is very difficult to implement it.For implementation, it is basically the government who will take initiatives while the other political parties also need to play important role. For more than decades we are in the user level of computer, but we failed to develop better ICT infrastructure and not able to provide digital devices to the common people. A very first step for ‘Digital Bangladesh' would be to spread the ICT education throughout the country. Internet facilities should be made available to the remotest corner of the country at a cheaper rate. The speed of the internet must be made maximum to get the benefit of the time.Boosting up the ICT industry deserves huge investment as well as care by right ICT policy. A comprehensive plan and effort through a holistic approach needs to be made. Market needs to be broadened both in a nd outside the country for software, outsourcing and programming. Hardware plant needs to be established in the country. Bangladesh as a country with 150 million population has huge potential, despite having many problems. It is very important to create skilled manpower educated in science and technology. Currently, the people of Bangladesh remain far away from using ICT, when the whole world is getting developed with the blessings of ICT.Though late, but Bangladesh is already connected with SEA-ME-WE4 submarine fiber-optic cable connection. The government needs to adopt a viable ICT policy and set up a state of the art Hi-Tech Park with a view to flourishing the ICT sector. At present, the ICT sector falls under three separate ministries, namely post and telecommunication, science and technology and information. For obvious reasons, there is a need for bringing the ICT sector under a single umbrella to ease policy formulation and realize the potential.A holistic approach needs to b e taken by all the stakeholders to reach the ICT facilities to the doorstep of the common people. It is the time to take initiative to hand over a computer to every child of the country. The broadband internet charge needs to be reduced at minimum level. Therefore, it is the expectation of the mass people that the government will take all possible steps to create a SMART (simple, measurable, accountable, responsive and transparent) ‘Digital Bangladesh' and establish a knowledge-based society within 50 years of her independence in 2021.

Family marriage Essay

On the night of Feb 28th, the last day of classes, Nilesh proposed to Geeta, his MBA classmate of nearly a year and a half. Geeta agreed immediately and wondered if all her classmates will be able to attend their wedding as once they all go back to their homes it would be really very difficult for everyone to get together again. Suddenly, Nilesh came up with the idea: what if they got married on March 22nd? â€Å"But how could it be? Our convocation is on March 21st Geeta said. â€Å"Exactly! All our classmates will definitely come here for convocation and they would not mind staying an extra day for the wedding. In fact, we will get the blessings of even their parents as many are planning to come for the convocation. † Geeta: Right. But so many things have to be done. That is also when the wedding season starts and all the reception halls become unavailable. For our send-off party, juniors were saying that hotels were insisting on 17 days notice. Of course, for Rs 5000/- extra the notice period can be reduced to 10 days. Nilesh: I want my brother and sister-in-law to come for the wedding. Geeta: But, they are in US and working. They will require at least 10 days before they can be here. Also my parents will have to buy your sister-in-law a sari-set (sari with matching blouse and petticoat) as per the tradition. She will have to be here well in time so that they can be fitted well. Nilesh: And catering! It takes two days to choose the menu and Pandal decorations. Hotel Sayaji wants at least 10 days notice period before the formal engagement ceremony (one night before the wedding). Geeta: And what about our dresses? These days, it is better to get it made after choosing the pattern and buying the material yourself. It would take three days to choose the pattern and eight days to order and receive the material after Nilesh: Yes. But the material supplier can deliver in five days if we pay an extra of Rs 1000/- for expediting it. Geeta: I want Joyti of Asha Boutique to work on our dresses. Nilesh: But she charges Rs 500/- for one day of work. Geeta: If I got my mother to do all the services, we could finish the dresses in 11 days. If Joyti helped, we could cut that down to six days, at a cost of Rs 500/- for each day less than 11 days. Nilesh: It would take another two days to do the final fitting. Then dry-cleaner will take two days to clean and press the dresses unless we pay Ps 1000/- for the express service of single day delivery. Geeta: That’s right. By the way, have you thought about invitations? Nobody will come unless we invite them formally. Nilesh: Anand Printing Press will take 12 days to print the invitation cards. Of course, they do have an express service and can deliver in five days if we pay them extra Rs 1500/Geeta: It will take three days to prepare the matter which will be printed and select the styles. Nilesh: Given the postal delays, the invitations have to go out at least 10 days before the wedding. Geeta: Mailing them will take a day and that cannot be done until we write addresses on them. Addressing will take four days unless we hire some help. We can finish addresses in two days if we hire a part-time help for Ps 200/-. Geeta: We also have to buy some jewellery items to be given as gift to my brother-in-law. It will take a day to do that Nilesh: But before we start writing address, we will have to prepare a guest list. We can’t afford to miss out on anyone important, as that will have an impact on the relationship with them forever. We will have to be really thorough on that. I think it will take four days to prepare an exhaustive guest list. Geeta: That does sound like a lot. Now it certainly looks much easier to earn an MBA degree than get married!!! QUESTIONS:1. Given the activities and precedence relationships described in the (A) case, develop a network diagram for the wedding plans. 2. Identify the paths. Which are critical? 3. What is the maximum cost plan that meets the March 22nd deadline? Case -2 {Continuation of Case 2} Marks-15 Several complications arose during the course of trying to meet the deadline of March 21, for the Nilesh— Geeta engagement. Since it was important for Nilesh and Geeta to get married on March 22nd, the implications of each of these complications had to be assessed. 1. All hotels informed that the express booking had to be withdrawn that year as there was a mad-rush for getting married, and therefore Nilesh and Geeta would have to give 17 days’ notice. 2. A call to the US revealed that brother and sister-in-law couldn’t leave till March 1st as they had urgent deadlines at work. 3. Nilesh came down with four day flu just as he started to work on the guest list. 4. The dress material was lost in transit. Notice of loss was delivered to Geeta on March 10th. 5. There was an unplanned repair work at Sayaji on March 8. They informed that they would be closed for two to three days. QUESTIONS :1. Given your answers to the (A) case, describe the effects on the wedding plans of each incident noted in the (B) case. SECTION B Attempt any 5 questions:- Marks-50 1) What is the linkage between product choices and process choices in an organization? 2) How can the internet affect the practice of operations management? Does it have any implications for operations strategy? 3) Does the organization structure influence the product development process and way? Explain. 4) Distinguish between assignable and common causes of variations. Why is this distinction important quality control? 5) How does the choice of the layout affect of the operational performance of an organization? 6) Explain how forecasting helps an organization handle uncertainties.

arranged marriage essays

arranged marriage essays Arranged marriage is a concept that does not take precedence in the United States, where love marriages are most popular. In this presentation we will explore the reasons for arranged marriages and look at the process that goes on. Our group will also relate this topic to such anthropological terms such as dowry and joint family system. Our goal is to help others understand that no matter how different arranged marriages may seem to Americans, they love, procreate and support each other possibly more successfully than our "love marriages. Before delving into the intrcacies of the process of arranges marriages we will define our terms so that students will know how to relate them when they hear them in our presentation. Posters will act as our visual aid in order to explain such terms as swamber which literally means "groom seeks out his bride:. Other terms such include dowry which is the payment of the woman;s inheritance at the time of her marriage, either to her or her husband. This dowry usually helps pay for the wedding ceremony, paid mostly by her parents. One very important part of an arranged marriage is the significance of the middle man, who is usually a middle woman. She may be a family friend or an aunt of the person to be married. This matchmaker thoroughly inspects the pasts and reputations of the prospective bride or groom to find anything that may not be approved by the family. This is usually done by word of mouth by relatives and friends who know the person. There are three main characteristics that the mediator looks for : the girl or boy's social status, their education level and their physical appearance. After these qualities have been approves by both families, the two may meet if they don't already know each other. If they agree they would like to be married, the wedding may proceed as soon as two weeks later or as late as a few years. There are five ceremonies that are a part of the wedding. The fi...